The mount ranges of Europe together with Asia
When the smashing province masses of Africa together with Republic of Republic of India collide amongst Europe together with Asia, most 100 meg years ago, they motility the crust of the globe to crumple upwards inwards a long almost continuous ridge of high footing - from the Alps, through Turkey, Islamic Republic of Iran together with Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan to the Himalayas. This barrier volition direct keep a profound influence on human history.
To the southward together with E of the mount hit are diverse fertile regions, watered yesteryear smashing rivers flowing from the mountains. By contrast, due north of the mount hit is a continuous strip of less fertile grasslands - the steppes, on which a horseman tin ride almost without suspension from Mongolia to Moscow.
This unbroken stretch of province due north of the mountains, reaching from the Pacific inwards the E to the Atlantic inwards the west, agency that the boundary betwixt Asia together with Europe is a somewhat vague concept. Indeed Europe is actually the western peninsula of the much larger volume of Asia.
In the southward at that spot is a natural barrier, long accepted every bit a dividing line of piece of employment - formed yesteryear the waters of the Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmara, the Bosphorus together with the Black Sea. North from hither the boundary is notional. In recent times it has been accepted every bit passing E from the Black Sea to the Caspian together with and then stretching due north from the Caspian along the eastern slopes of the Ural mountains.
Out of Africa: to a greater extent than than a meg years ago
Homo erectus is the diversity of human who moves out of the continent of Africa, to spread through much of Asia together with Europe. This displace from Africa is normally dated to most a meg years ago, but this may live also recent. First reports of 2 skulls found inwards 1999 at Dmanisi, inwards South Georgia, depict them every bit 1.8 meg years old.
Fossil remains of this sort direct keep been found every bit far afield every bit Java inwards southeast Asia (the foremost to live discovered, inwards 1891), Beijing inwards northern China, together with inside Europe inwards Greece, Federal Republic of Federal Republic of Germany together with England - inwards add-on to numerous sites inwards Africa. The European skulls differ from the Asian inwards diverse ways (larger brains, smaller teeth), causing about anthropologists to split upwards them non every bit Homo erectus but every bit an archaic version of our ain species, Homo sapiens.
The spread of our species: from 60,000 years ago
After Homo erectus has spread through the linked fundamental province volume of our planet (Africa together with Eurasia), he is succeeded inside that portion yesteryear varieties of Homo sapiens - the Neanderthals together with and then modern humans. It is modern humans who choose the adjacent footstep inwards colonizing the habitable earth.
The dates are silent uncertain together with much disputed. But at about fourth dimension after 60,000 years agone people cross from southeast Asia to Borneo, the Philippines, New Republic of Guinea together with Australia. And at about fourth dimension after 30,000 years agone humans brand the curt but hard boundary from northeast Asia to northwest America.
The unsettling together with the settled: from 8000 BC
Only nomads tin alive on the steppes due north of Asia's mount ranges, moving amongst their flocks of animals to live together on the meagre crop of grass. It is a tough life, together with the steppes direct keep bred tough people - pioneers inwards warfare on horseback.
From the Indo-European tribes of ancient times to the Mongols together with Turks of to a greater extent than recent history, the people of the steppes descend oftentimes together with amongst devastating suddeness upon their to a greater extent than civilized neighbours. There are many tempting victims. Beneath the mount ridges Asia offers ideal locations for civilized life.
The regions bordering the Asian shores of the Mediterranean are where mankind appears foremost to direct keep settled inwards villages together with towns - a evolution requiring at to the lowest degree the beginnings of agriculture. Two of the earliest settlements to deserve the elevate of towns are Jericho inwards Palestine together with Catal Huyuk inwards Anatolia.
For the emergence of a to a greater extent than developed society, justifying the elevate of civilization, history suggests that at that spot is i incomparable advantage, indeed almost a necessity - the proximity of a large river, flowing through an opened upwards plain. In several places Asia provides this.
On a map showing the fertile plains of Asia, betwixt the mountains together with the sea, 3 such areas stand upwards out: Mesopotamia, watered yesteryear the Tigris together with the Euphrates; the valley of the Indus; together with the plains of due north China, from the Hwang Ho (or Yellow River) downward to the Yangtze.
Other waterways, such every bit the Ganges or the Mekong, are inwards areas also heavily forested to brand agriculture easy. But inwards Mesopotamia, western Republic of Republic of India together with northern China, smashing rivers current through opened upwards plains, providing ample inundation H2O for the nurturing of crops. These regions of Asia perish the sites of 3 of the early on civilizations.
Indo-Europeans: from 2000 BC
Tribes speaking Indo-European languages, together with living every bit nomadic herdsmen, are good established yesteryear most 2000 BC inwards the steppes which stretch from the Ukraine eastwards, to the regions due north of the Black Sea together with the Caspian.
Over the coming centuries they steadily infiltrate the to a greater extent than appealing regions to the southward together with due west - occasionally inwards something akin to opened upwards warfare, together with invariably no incertitude amongst violence. But the procedure is much to a greater extent than gradual than our modern notions of an invading force.
India-Europeans inwards Asia: from 1800 BC
In Asia the foremost pregnant motility of this sort is yesteryear the Hittites, who flora themselves inwards Anatolia.
Subsequently the Medes together with the Persians perish the dominant tribes on the Iranian plateau. These Indo-Iranians are related inwards linguistic communication together with civilisation to the Aryans who displace downward into India, profoundly influencing the subcontinent. Their tribal faith contributes largely to Zoroastrianism inwards Persia together with Hinduism inwards Republic of Republic of India (see the gods of the Aryans).
At a much after date, i of the Indo-European tribal groups inwards Republic of Republic of India makes a farther displace south. They are the Sinhalese. They settle inwards Sri Lanka, likely inwards the sixth century BC.
In doing so, they isolate themselves from the Indo-Europeans of due north India, for they displace to the southward of a dissimilar linguistic grouping - the Dravidians, whose origin is unknown but whose linguistic communication has no links amongst Indo-European. After about other lengthy gap, inwards most the 11th century AD, members of the largest Dravidian community, the Tamils, displace into Sri Lanka from southern Republic of Republic of India together with settle inwards the due north of the island.
Western Asia: from G BC
The smashing civlizations of southward together with E Asia - Republic of Republic of India together with Red People's Republic of China - are relatively isolated yesteryear the accidents of geography. But western Asia, together with inwards item the Mediterranean coast, is vulnerable to invaders from all sides.
By most G BC the Hebrews are established inwards Palestine. The Phoenicians are their neighbours to the north. These desirable territories volition live a continuous battleground, foremost inwards a triangular rivalry betwixt Mesopotamia, Arab Republic of Egypt together with Anatolia; together with later, when rigid rulers command the Iranian plateau, inwards a prolonged fighting betwixt the Western Farsi empire to the E together with Hellenic Republic together with Rome to the west.
Between Republic of Republic of India together with China: 1st c. BC - eighth c. AD
Cultural influence inwards southeast Asia comes at foremost either from Republic of Republic of India or China. In the 1st century BC Indian traders penetrate Burma. Further east, inwards Vietnam, Bronze Age civilisation infiltrates gradually from Red People's Republic of China at about fourth dimension earlier the third century BC.
With these exceptions, the portion is silent occupied at this fourth dimension yesteryear neolithic communities.
The evolution of to a greater extent than advanced cultures inwards the portion derives largely from the spread of India's 2 smashing religions, Hinduism together with Buddhism.
Both move E yesteryear sea inwards the early on centuries of the Christian era. The Indians at this fourth dimension are adventurous seafarers. Merchants gradually spread the 2 religions together with their related architectural traditions along coastal regions on the way towards the South Red People's Republic of China Sea. This religious together with cultural imperialism from India, combined amongst political together with armed forces describe per unit of measurement area from Red People's Republic of China (particularly inwards Vietnam) gives southeast Asia its lasting chararacter.
At a slightly after appointment Buddhism spreads also from China, which it has reached along the Silk Road from India. After becoming good established inwards Korea, Buddhist monks convey the faith during the sixth century to Japan.
Buddhism reaches Tibet inwards the eighth century from 2 directions - from Red People's Republic of China together with from Nepal, the master copy birthplace of the faith inwards India.
Western Asia: 1st millennium AD
At the start of the Christian era western Asia is business office of the Roman empire which confronts, to the east, a Western Farsi empire of varying size together with complexion. The portion volition stay an uneasy edge betwixt these 2 blocks until the quaternary century, when the adoption of Christianity begins to transform the western antagonist from the Roman into the Byzantine empire.
The remainder all the same remains much the same until it is violently together with speedily upset yesteryear the emergence of Islam inwards the seventh century. For the concluding centuries of the menses western Asia, amongst the exception of Anatolia, is Muslim.
East Asia: 1st millennium AD
India together with China, the 2 ancient civilizations of E Asia, are large plenty to follow their ain class at this phase without much influence from outside. It is instead their influence which spreads outwards, profoundly affecting the evolution of Sri Lanka, Korea together with Nihon - all of which educate their ain local together with lasting characteristics during this period.
North of the mount ranges the nomads exert describe per unit of measurement area southwards from fourth dimension to time. For the most business office they are easily contained. Early inwards the adjacent millennium their plough volition come, foremost amongst youngster groups gaining territory inwards northern Red People's Republic of China together with and then amongst the trigger-happy eruption of the Mongols.
Turks together with Mongols: AD 1000-1517
The foremost one-half of our ain millennium is dominated, inwards Asia, yesteryear the motility of Turks together with Mongols. Almost every business office of the continent (southern Republic of Republic of India together with southeast Asia are the exceptions) is invaded or occupied inwards this menses yesteryear conquerors whose ain roots prevarication inwards the steppes due north of the mount ranges.
The foremost is Mahmud of Ghazni who raids into Republic of Republic of India from the yr 1000, offset a long Turkish presence inwards the due north of the subcontinent. Later inwards the 11th century the Seljuk Turks dominion from Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan due west to the Mediterranean.
In the 13th century the Mongols emerge from the steppes to seize a vast together with virtually minute empire; yesteryear the fourth dimension of Kublai Khan almost the whole habitable continent is theirs, except Palestine together with Syrian Arab Republic inwards the due west together with India, southeast Asia together with Nihon inwards the east. In the 15th century Timur almost repeats their smashing feat of conquest, but the consequence is exclusively to house his Turkish descendants on thrones previously held yesteryear Mongols - except for the majestic throne inwards China, yesteryear forthwith returned to a native dynasty (the Ming).
In the 15th century a novel Turkish power, that of the Ottomans, wins command of Anatolia.
The foremost 2 decades of the 16th century convey renewed upheaval inwards 2 areas. H5N1 native ruler, the foremost of the Safavids, wins ability inwards Persia. And inwards 1517 the Ottoman Turks extend their dominion circular the eastern Mediterranean together with downward into Arab Republic of Egypt together with Arabia.
The resulting province of affairs remains the condition quo for about time. The Ottoman empire includes the whole of southwest Asia. Persia is inwards Western Farsi hands. Much of Republic of Republic of India is ruled yesteryear Muslims of Turkish origin. The steppes stay the province of Turkish together with Mongol nomads, though this portion together with Siberia volition increasingly attract Russia.
The interest of Europeans: 16th - 19th century AD
In 1498 a Portuguese send reaches Calicut inwards southern India. Its captain, Vasco da Gama, sails away i time to a greater extent than after 3 months. But this European watch to Asia is real dissimilar from the overland journeys made yesteryear Marco Polo together with others inwards previous centuries. Europeans forthwith direct keep novel maritime skills together with ocean-going ships. Over the coming centuries their command of the seas volition give them a massive presence inwards Asia.
The spice islands, dominated yesteryear the Dutch from the 17th century, are the foremost business office of Asia to attract European attention. India, fought over yesteryear French together with English linguistic communication inwards the 18th century, is the adjacent focus of colonial attention.
China retains a dignified isolation until brutally subdued yesteryear United Kingdom of Great Britain together with Northern Ireland inwards the 2 Opium Wars of the 19th century. Meanwhile Red People's Republic of China is acquiring a European neighbor to the north, amongst the expansion of the Russian empire to the Pacific. And the French win command of the business office of southeast Asia which becomes known every bit Indo-China.
By the mid-19th century the European presence inwards Asia is thence all-pervasive that wars inwards Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan derive from majestic rivalries betwixt Russian Federation to the due north together with the British inwards neighbouring India. Not till the unscrambling of imperialism inwards the 20th century are the historic regions of Asia fully restored to Asian control. Japan, exclusively briefly intruded upon yesteryear Europe, has been an independent exception.
When the smashing province masses of Africa together with Republic of Republic of India collide amongst Europe together with Asia, most 100 meg years ago, they motility the crust of the globe to crumple upwards inwards a long almost continuous ridge of high footing - from the Alps, through Turkey, Islamic Republic of Iran together with Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan to the Himalayas. This barrier volition direct keep a profound influence on human history.
To the southward together with E of the mount hit are diverse fertile regions, watered yesteryear smashing rivers flowing from the mountains. By contrast, due north of the mount hit is a continuous strip of less fertile grasslands - the steppes, on which a horseman tin ride almost without suspension from Mongolia to Moscow.
This unbroken stretch of province due north of the mountains, reaching from the Pacific inwards the E to the Atlantic inwards the west, agency that the boundary betwixt Asia together with Europe is a somewhat vague concept. Indeed Europe is actually the western peninsula of the much larger volume of Asia.
In the southward at that spot is a natural barrier, long accepted every bit a dividing line of piece of employment - formed yesteryear the waters of the Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmara, the Bosphorus together with the Black Sea. North from hither the boundary is notional. In recent times it has been accepted every bit passing E from the Black Sea to the Caspian together with and then stretching due north from the Caspian along the eastern slopes of the Ural mountains.
Out of Africa: to a greater extent than than a meg years ago
Homo erectus is the diversity of human who moves out of the continent of Africa, to spread through much of Asia together with Europe. This displace from Africa is normally dated to most a meg years ago, but this may live also recent. First reports of 2 skulls found inwards 1999 at Dmanisi, inwards South Georgia, depict them every bit 1.8 meg years old.
Fossil remains of this sort direct keep been found every bit far afield every bit Java inwards southeast Asia (the foremost to live discovered, inwards 1891), Beijing inwards northern China, together with inside Europe inwards Greece, Federal Republic of Federal Republic of Germany together with England - inwards add-on to numerous sites inwards Africa. The European skulls differ from the Asian inwards diverse ways (larger brains, smaller teeth), causing about anthropologists to split upwards them non every bit Homo erectus but every bit an archaic version of our ain species, Homo sapiens.
The spread of our species: from 60,000 years ago
After Homo erectus has spread through the linked fundamental province volume of our planet (Africa together with Eurasia), he is succeeded inside that portion yesteryear varieties of Homo sapiens - the Neanderthals together with and then modern humans. It is modern humans who choose the adjacent footstep inwards colonizing the habitable earth.
The dates are silent uncertain together with much disputed. But at about fourth dimension after 60,000 years agone people cross from southeast Asia to Borneo, the Philippines, New Republic of Guinea together with Australia. And at about fourth dimension after 30,000 years agone humans brand the curt but hard boundary from northeast Asia to northwest America.
The unsettling together with the settled: from 8000 BC
Only nomads tin alive on the steppes due north of Asia's mount ranges, moving amongst their flocks of animals to live together on the meagre crop of grass. It is a tough life, together with the steppes direct keep bred tough people - pioneers inwards warfare on horseback.
From the Indo-European tribes of ancient times to the Mongols together with Turks of to a greater extent than recent history, the people of the steppes descend oftentimes together with amongst devastating suddeness upon their to a greater extent than civilized neighbours. There are many tempting victims. Beneath the mount ridges Asia offers ideal locations for civilized life.
The regions bordering the Asian shores of the Mediterranean are where mankind appears foremost to direct keep settled inwards villages together with towns - a evolution requiring at to the lowest degree the beginnings of agriculture. Two of the earliest settlements to deserve the elevate of towns are Jericho inwards Palestine together with Catal Huyuk inwards Anatolia.
For the emergence of a to a greater extent than developed society, justifying the elevate of civilization, history suggests that at that spot is i incomparable advantage, indeed almost a necessity - the proximity of a large river, flowing through an opened upwards plain. In several places Asia provides this.
On a map showing the fertile plains of Asia, betwixt the mountains together with the sea, 3 such areas stand upwards out: Mesopotamia, watered yesteryear the Tigris together with the Euphrates; the valley of the Indus; together with the plains of due north China, from the Hwang Ho (or Yellow River) downward to the Yangtze.
Other waterways, such every bit the Ganges or the Mekong, are inwards areas also heavily forested to brand agriculture easy. But inwards Mesopotamia, western Republic of Republic of India together with northern China, smashing rivers current through opened upwards plains, providing ample inundation H2O for the nurturing of crops. These regions of Asia perish the sites of 3 of the early on civilizations.
Indo-Europeans: from 2000 BC
Tribes speaking Indo-European languages, together with living every bit nomadic herdsmen, are good established yesteryear most 2000 BC inwards the steppes which stretch from the Ukraine eastwards, to the regions due north of the Black Sea together with the Caspian.
Over the coming centuries they steadily infiltrate the to a greater extent than appealing regions to the southward together with due west - occasionally inwards something akin to opened upwards warfare, together with invariably no incertitude amongst violence. But the procedure is much to a greater extent than gradual than our modern notions of an invading force.
India-Europeans inwards Asia: from 1800 BC
In Asia the foremost pregnant motility of this sort is yesteryear the Hittites, who flora themselves inwards Anatolia.
Subsequently the Medes together with the Persians perish the dominant tribes on the Iranian plateau. These Indo-Iranians are related inwards linguistic communication together with civilisation to the Aryans who displace downward into India, profoundly influencing the subcontinent. Their tribal faith contributes largely to Zoroastrianism inwards Persia together with Hinduism inwards Republic of Republic of India (see the gods of the Aryans).
At a much after date, i of the Indo-European tribal groups inwards Republic of Republic of India makes a farther displace south. They are the Sinhalese. They settle inwards Sri Lanka, likely inwards the sixth century BC.
In doing so, they isolate themselves from the Indo-Europeans of due north India, for they displace to the southward of a dissimilar linguistic grouping - the Dravidians, whose origin is unknown but whose linguistic communication has no links amongst Indo-European. After about other lengthy gap, inwards most the 11th century AD, members of the largest Dravidian community, the Tamils, displace into Sri Lanka from southern Republic of Republic of India together with settle inwards the due north of the island.
Western Asia: from G BC
The smashing civlizations of southward together with E Asia - Republic of Republic of India together with Red People's Republic of China - are relatively isolated yesteryear the accidents of geography. But western Asia, together with inwards item the Mediterranean coast, is vulnerable to invaders from all sides.
By most G BC the Hebrews are established inwards Palestine. The Phoenicians are their neighbours to the north. These desirable territories volition live a continuous battleground, foremost inwards a triangular rivalry betwixt Mesopotamia, Arab Republic of Egypt together with Anatolia; together with later, when rigid rulers command the Iranian plateau, inwards a prolonged fighting betwixt the Western Farsi empire to the E together with Hellenic Republic together with Rome to the west.
Between Republic of Republic of India together with China: 1st c. BC - eighth c. AD
Cultural influence inwards southeast Asia comes at foremost either from Republic of Republic of India or China. In the 1st century BC Indian traders penetrate Burma. Further east, inwards Vietnam, Bronze Age civilisation infiltrates gradually from Red People's Republic of China at about fourth dimension earlier the third century BC.
With these exceptions, the portion is silent occupied at this fourth dimension yesteryear neolithic communities.
The evolution of to a greater extent than advanced cultures inwards the portion derives largely from the spread of India's 2 smashing religions, Hinduism together with Buddhism.
Both move E yesteryear sea inwards the early on centuries of the Christian era. The Indians at this fourth dimension are adventurous seafarers. Merchants gradually spread the 2 religions together with their related architectural traditions along coastal regions on the way towards the South Red People's Republic of China Sea. This religious together with cultural imperialism from India, combined amongst political together with armed forces describe per unit of measurement area from Red People's Republic of China (particularly inwards Vietnam) gives southeast Asia its lasting chararacter.
At a slightly after appointment Buddhism spreads also from China, which it has reached along the Silk Road from India. After becoming good established inwards Korea, Buddhist monks convey the faith during the sixth century to Japan.
Buddhism reaches Tibet inwards the eighth century from 2 directions - from Red People's Republic of China together with from Nepal, the master copy birthplace of the faith inwards India.
Western Asia: 1st millennium AD
At the start of the Christian era western Asia is business office of the Roman empire which confronts, to the east, a Western Farsi empire of varying size together with complexion. The portion volition stay an uneasy edge betwixt these 2 blocks until the quaternary century, when the adoption of Christianity begins to transform the western antagonist from the Roman into the Byzantine empire.
The remainder all the same remains much the same until it is violently together with speedily upset yesteryear the emergence of Islam inwards the seventh century. For the concluding centuries of the menses western Asia, amongst the exception of Anatolia, is Muslim.
East Asia: 1st millennium AD
India together with China, the 2 ancient civilizations of E Asia, are large plenty to follow their ain class at this phase without much influence from outside. It is instead their influence which spreads outwards, profoundly affecting the evolution of Sri Lanka, Korea together with Nihon - all of which educate their ain local together with lasting characteristics during this period.
North of the mount ranges the nomads exert describe per unit of measurement area southwards from fourth dimension to time. For the most business office they are easily contained. Early inwards the adjacent millennium their plough volition come, foremost amongst youngster groups gaining territory inwards northern Red People's Republic of China together with and then amongst the trigger-happy eruption of the Mongols.
Turks together with Mongols: AD 1000-1517
The foremost one-half of our ain millennium is dominated, inwards Asia, yesteryear the motility of Turks together with Mongols. Almost every business office of the continent (southern Republic of Republic of India together with southeast Asia are the exceptions) is invaded or occupied inwards this menses yesteryear conquerors whose ain roots prevarication inwards the steppes due north of the mount ranges.
The foremost is Mahmud of Ghazni who raids into Republic of Republic of India from the yr 1000, offset a long Turkish presence inwards the due north of the subcontinent. Later inwards the 11th century the Seljuk Turks dominion from Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan due west to the Mediterranean.
In the 13th century the Mongols emerge from the steppes to seize a vast together with virtually minute empire; yesteryear the fourth dimension of Kublai Khan almost the whole habitable continent is theirs, except Palestine together with Syrian Arab Republic inwards the due west together with India, southeast Asia together with Nihon inwards the east. In the 15th century Timur almost repeats their smashing feat of conquest, but the consequence is exclusively to house his Turkish descendants on thrones previously held yesteryear Mongols - except for the majestic throne inwards China, yesteryear forthwith returned to a native dynasty (the Ming).
In the 15th century a novel Turkish power, that of the Ottomans, wins command of Anatolia.
The foremost 2 decades of the 16th century convey renewed upheaval inwards 2 areas. H5N1 native ruler, the foremost of the Safavids, wins ability inwards Persia. And inwards 1517 the Ottoman Turks extend their dominion circular the eastern Mediterranean together with downward into Arab Republic of Egypt together with Arabia.
The resulting province of affairs remains the condition quo for about time. The Ottoman empire includes the whole of southwest Asia. Persia is inwards Western Farsi hands. Much of Republic of Republic of India is ruled yesteryear Muslims of Turkish origin. The steppes stay the province of Turkish together with Mongol nomads, though this portion together with Siberia volition increasingly attract Russia.
The interest of Europeans: 16th - 19th century AD
In 1498 a Portuguese send reaches Calicut inwards southern India. Its captain, Vasco da Gama, sails away i time to a greater extent than after 3 months. But this European watch to Asia is real dissimilar from the overland journeys made yesteryear Marco Polo together with others inwards previous centuries. Europeans forthwith direct keep novel maritime skills together with ocean-going ships. Over the coming centuries their command of the seas volition give them a massive presence inwards Asia.
The spice islands, dominated yesteryear the Dutch from the 17th century, are the foremost business office of Asia to attract European attention. India, fought over yesteryear French together with English linguistic communication inwards the 18th century, is the adjacent focus of colonial attention.
China retains a dignified isolation until brutally subdued yesteryear United Kingdom of Great Britain together with Northern Ireland inwards the 2 Opium Wars of the 19th century. Meanwhile Red People's Republic of China is acquiring a European neighbor to the north, amongst the expansion of the Russian empire to the Pacific. And the French win command of the business office of southeast Asia which becomes known every bit Indo-China.
By the mid-19th century the European presence inwards Asia is thence all-pervasive that wars inwards Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan derive from majestic rivalries betwixt Russian Federation to the due north together with the British inwards neighbouring India. Not till the unscrambling of imperialism inwards the 20th century are the historic regions of Asia fully restored to Asian control. Japan, exclusively briefly intruded upon yesteryear Europe, has been an independent exception.
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