A Redoubtable Foe
One of the cracking chapters inwards the history of Armenia is or should hold upwards the epic of the monarchy which the Assyrians called Urartu, but which was known to the Hebrews equally Ararat. Herodotus called its people Alarodians. Urartu is regarded past times history today equally ane of the before incarnations of Armenia. In Urartu was manifest non alone the indomitable fighting spirit of the afterwards Armenians, but also the same style towards evolution of a higher culture. As a noted authority, H. A. B. Lynch, remarks, Urartu was "no obscure dynasty which slept secure behind the mountains, but a excellent monarchy which for to a greater extent than than 2 centuries rivalled the claims of Assyria to the principle of the ancient world."
Its Peak Years
As a nation, it lived through many to a greater extent than centuries than that, but it was alone betwixt 860 in addition to 585 B.C. that it genuinely disputed with Assyria the correct to dominate western Asia. Its beginnings are lost inwards the mists of pre-history. Its people must have got migrated from somewhere to the westward into the Armenian plateau, so for the most business office known equally Nairi. They called themselves Khaldians or children of the god Khaldis, merely equally the hollo of the Assyrians reflects the hollo of their god Assur. The cuneiform characters of their inscriptions were for centuries Assyrian; but afterwards on the linguistic communication changed to or was absorbed inwards the local one. The Assyrian was a Semitic language, piece Urartean was neither Semitic nor Indo-European. Urartean civilization is believed to have got been similar to the Hittite in addition to Assyro-Babylonian, blended with native characteristics. The afterwards Urartean monuments still grip a mystery for us equally to their affinity with the Armenian language, witness of a glorious past. It has non yet been possible to decipher these inscriptions with whatever assistance from the Armenian language. N. Marr, Nikolsky, Lehmann-Haupt in addition to before scientists have got classified them equally inwards the Japhetic speech-group, in addition to the Armenian experts, A. Calantar in addition to G. Ghapantsian, concur inwards this finding. Professor Nikolsky has constitute hundreds of words, both nouns in addition to verbs, showing affinity betwixt the Urartean in addition to the modern Utean. As early on equally 1879 H. Hübschmann pointed out inwards the Urartean inscriptions several words in addition to suffixes — such equally ili, ini, in addition to uni — borrowed from Caucasian idioms, specially Georgian in addition to Aghouanian (Albanian).
Mystery of Origin
Where did these people come upwards from? From Asia Minor, declares Lehmann-Haupt, seeking proof for his assertion inwards their metallurgy, architecture in addition to folkways. Professor Shestokov, a Caucasian author, wrote inwards 1939 that "The oldest states of the Soviet Union were founded 3,000 years agone to the S of Transcaucasia. The oldest alongside them, that inwards the Ararat area, past times the Lake of Van, was called Urartu. Its kings ruled over Georgian tribes." Here is some other theory equally to the origin of the people ane time household inwards Nairi, which comprised the entire Armenian plateau. Even when the greater business office of that tableland became Urartu, the regions on 2 flanks of it, from Amit (Diarbekr) to Anzitene (Harpout), together with Habushkia inwards Zab Valley, in addition to Paddira, S of Musasir, were still called Nairi. The hollo Nairi-Urartu reveals kinship with Hurri, Namri, Kirruri in addition to other names with the suffix ri, having no connecter with Semitic idioms.
Professor Edward Schultz was ane of the firstly to obtain master copy data on Urartu, when he visited Armenia inwards 1827. He was murdered in that place past times a Kurd, but his papers, containing 42 inscriptions constitute at Van in addition to inwards its neighborhood, were saved. The afterwards discoveries of Burnouf, Lassen in addition to Rawlinson stimulated involvement inwards Oriental antiquities. Layard visited Van inwards 1850 in addition to took novel copies of the inscriptions. Of special involvement were ane tablet on the stone of Van, in addition to an inscription on a stone inwards a ruined wall. The firstly contains the hollo of Xerxes, boy of Darius, inwards the same characters equally those of Behistun in addition to Persepolis. The instant resembles Assyrian writings. All others are of a linguistic communication peculiar to Van. Another mysterious text was read past times Hincks inwards 1847, in addition to next these Professor A. H. Sayce added "a novel linguistic communication in addition to a novel people to the museum of the ancient Oriental world." Thereafter the known Vannic texts were doubled inwards extent past times the German linguistic communication archaeologists, Lehmann in addition to Belck, who, inwards the words of Lynch, called upwards "a vanished civilization from the grave." But fifty-fifty so, alas, they could evoke alone a broken in addition to fragmentary body; so much has been lost past times the ravages of state of war in addition to vandalism in addition to time.
Van-Tosp
The spot of this theocratic monarchy was Thuspa, uppercase of the territory of Biaina, corrupted into the shape Van. The Armenian national historian, Moses of Khoren (Khorenatsi), mentions Van equally "in the province of Tosp." In some of the ancient inscriptions, ane finds, "King of Biaina, inhabiting the metropolis of Thuspas." Going dorsum into history nosotros observe Tiglat-Pileser I, King of Assyria, asserting that he conquered twenty-three kings of Nairi inwards 1114 B.C. These "kingdoms" must have got been real small, indeed; in addition to when nosotros observe that this same Tiglat claimed to have got slain with his ain manus x elephants in addition to 920 lions, nosotros are inclined to have his statements with reserve. In an inscription of the Assyrian Assurbelkala (1077‑1060 B.C.), firstly appears the hollo Uruatru. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 Shalmanaser of Assyria (1028‑1017 B.C.), claimed the conquest of "the entire province of Uruatru" inwards iii days. In inscriptions of Ashurnasirpal (885‑859 B.C.) the hollo appears equally Urardhu or Urarthu. The succeeding manful somebody monarch Shalmaneser, forthwith called past times most historians the Second (859‑825 B.C.) sent an regular army against a manful somebody monarch of Urartu named Aramé, whose uppercase was Arzasku or Arzaskun, identified with the modern Melazgerd, northward of Lake Van. Aramé, who, according to Adontz, was the firstly organizer of the Urartean Empire, was defeated in addition to his uppercase taken past times Shalmanaser inwards 857 B.C.
Arame
To say that he was the "organizer" of the Empire, agency that he combined the "Nairi countries" into a confederation nether the aegis of the god Khaldis, supplanting an before Biaina confederation. Some government believe that non Aramé but Sardur I (844‑828) was the organizer of the confederation. Sardur was the boy of Lutipris, who succeeded Aramé. He left an inscription inwards the Assyrian language, calling himself King of Sura, which, according to Professor Albrecht Goetze, is the same equally Subaru. If this is so, the Urartean kings' claim of Hurrite descent entitled them to domination inwards Subari, or Upper Mesopotamia. Sardur's other titles were "Great King," in addition to "Ruler of Four Regions," i.e., Shar-Kishatti, according to Babylonian in addition to Assyrian inscriptions.
Sardur I
Sardur built a fortress of huge stones westward of the Rock of Van, in addition to Ispuinis, his boy in addition to successor, chose that stone equally his residence in addition to equally the holy spot of the god Khaldis. Ispuinis was a contemporary of Adadnirari IV of Assyria, boy of Shalmanaser in addition to hubby of Queen Shammuramat (Semiramis). Ispuinis fought in addition to defeated his powerful rival, in addition to was hence enabled to constitute a Khaldian colony at Musasir, westward of the Pass of Kelishinin, where he erected a commemorative stone with inscriptions inwards Khaldian in addition to Assyrian. Ispuinis in addition to his boy Menuas brought the empire to its peak. Under them it extended from the Zagros Mountains inwards the East to Palu inwards the North in addition to Malatia inwards the West.
During their reigns cracking works were constructed approximately Van, including the aqueduct of Shamiram‑Su, 45 miles inwards length, completed past times Menuas, which brought the pure H2O of the Khoshab River to the eastern shores of Lake Van (whose H2O is undrinkable), enabling the King to constitute in that place a "Menuas city." This canal irrigates the manifestly of Van fifty-fifty to the introduce time.
Ispuinis in addition to Menuas
Officials were appointed to inspect the canals, to maintain their channels clean, to distribute the H2O according to regulations in addition to to conception effective measures against overflowing. Menuas planted a garden, dedicated to the retentiveness of the married adult woman of Ispuinis; he repaired in addition to embellished the temple of Khaldi inwards Van, in addition to he strengthened the cracking fortification of Melazkert. No meliorate place for a fortress against a mightiness operating from the southern lowlands could have got been chosen past times the builders of an empire on the Armenian plains. Made to a greater extent than secure past times a fleet on the lake, in addition to past times the fortification of the passes of Mount Varag, the house became of first-rate military machine importance alone when the centers of hostile forcefulness lay inwards Mesopotamia. These facts explicate the comparative immunity in addition to rapid evolution of the empire of the successors of Sardur I, at a fourth dimension when Assyria was ruled past times warlike monarchs. The menstruation of Ispuinis in addition to Menuas is possibly the most vivid inwards Urartean history.
Argistis I
The political ascendence of Urartu was enhanced farther past times the weakness of Assyria nether Shalmaneser III (782‑772). Under Argistis I (785‑755), boy of Menuas, the Vannic Empire was still at the zenith of its power. The hereafter metropolis of Armavir rose on the banking concern of the Arax River inwards honor of Khaldis. The whole Armenian tableland was dependent area to Urartu, in addition to its inscriptions recording conquests are constitute from Lake Urmiah to the Euphrates River at Malatia. Thus having travel an unrivalled mightiness inwards Hither Asia, it imposed its suzerainty inwards 775 B.C. upon the kingdoms of Kummuch (Diarbekir), Tabal (west of Malatia) in addition to several other kingdoms in addition to principalities. Later on, inwards 758, after crushing the revolt of the Hatti manful somebody monarch of Milidu (Malatia), Sardur III, successor of Argistis I, moved southward, pose the Great King of Carchemish (Jarablus) nether tribute, in addition to captured the whole territory equally far equally Halpa (Aleppo). The empire of Assyria was so encircled, says the Turkish scholar, Professor Shemseddin, equally if "in an atomic bring out 26 hoop."
Sardur III
Argistis left a tape of 14 years of his reign on the walls of chambers hewn inwards the Rock of Van, piece Sardur III's victories are inscribed on a monument erected on a spot called "the Treasury Gate" inwards the fortress of Van. The Urarteans, so inwards unopen contact with the Hittites inwards the west, had inwards the eastward equally neighbors the Minni or Manni, inwards the southerly component subdivision of the Urmiah basin. Records of victories are also constitute inscribed farther north, on the shores of Lake Sevan, at Alexandropol (now Leninakan), at Hasankala (Erzerum), etc.
This vivid era of Urartu did non terminal long. Sardur III's Assyrian contemporaries, Assurnirari (755‑745) in addition to Tiglat-Pileser III (745‑727), waged state of war upon him, in addition to the latter dealt him a telling blow, routing him, together with his allies, the kings of New Hatti (in Malatia), of Gurgum (Marash) in addition to a score of others. The Menuas-city was destroyed inwards 735 in addition to the conqueror claimed to have got taken 73,000 prisoners. Hatti princes thereupon recognized the manful somebody monarch of Assyria equally their suzerain lord, instead of the Urartean potentate. Sardur fled deep into his mountains with a broken spirit in addition to health, in addition to sank into a physical decline, of which he died inwards 734 B.C.
Rusas I
Rusas I (733‑714 B.C.), a vigorous in addition to sagacious prince, reorganized the army, suppressed domestic turbulences in addition to revived the morale of the people. From Thuspa he transferred his spot to a colina afterwards known past times the Turkish hollo Toprak-kaleh (the earthen fort). This Rusas-city was supplied with H2O from an artificial lake inwards the side of the Varag Mountain. All this he recorded on a stele which inwards 1898‑9 was taken to the Museum of Berlin.
However, he was given picayune chance to rebuild Urartu's one-time eminence. Sargon II (722‑705), the most terrifying figure alongside the occupants of the Assyrian throne, darkened the political horizon of all the Near-Eastern lands. Tusas organized a coalition of the states of Southwest Asia in addition to strengthened the spot of Urzana, King of Musasir, his vassal in addition to ally. But inwards a sanguinary battle described inwards an inscription constitute nigh the shore of Lake Sevan, the Khaldian army, though resisting stubbornly, was defeated past times Sargon, who also overwhelmed Musasir in addition to plundered its temple. In the vast quantity of spoil carried to Nineveh were many idols belonging to the Urartean kings.
Even after this terrible loss of men in addition to material, Rusas did non yield to despair. Whilst neighboring nations were trembling with fright of the Assyrian scourge, Rusas replenished the reservoirs of his strength in addition to for the fourth dimension being, saved his kingdom from destruction. But some other dark chapter was inwards the making for him. Cimmerian hordes from the North, sweeping through the mount defiles, downward into the regions of the Urmiah in addition to Vannic lakes, surprised Urartu in addition to wrought cracking destruction. According to ane version of the outcome, the regular army of Rusas, unable to offering adequate resistance, melted away, in addition to Rusas committed suicide inwards 714. But T. A. Olmstead, inwards his History of Assyria, questioning the reliability of the Assyrian majestic scribes regards this equally a mere spectacular raid, without enduring results. One inscription, speaking of the fate of Rusas, says "With his ain atomic bring out 26 dagger, he pierced his pump equally he would to a Sus scrofa in addition to ended his life." Olmstead compares this with a slightly afterwards Assyrian inscription inwards which the defeated manful somebody monarch is pictured equally beingness ill, though in that place is non a discussion most suicide. It may good hold upwards that this malady caused his death.
Argistis II
Argistis II (714‑680), boy in addition to successor of Rusas, rid himself of the Cimmerian hordes past times deflecting their style to westward, into Cappadocia. As to his human relationship with Assyria, the latter's reports are silent, the explanation undoubtedly beingness that Sargon was non victorious at the time, but had been forced into a defensive attitude. Argistis II, however, was engaged inwards cloak-and-dagger activities, the centre of which was the province of Harda or Kharda, the modern Kharberd or Harpout. The canton of Inzit, the Hantzit of the geography of Armenia, was so a business office of the province of Alzi or Aghtzniq.
Sargon, ane time so boastful of his devastation inwards Urartu, forthwith sent envoys to Argistis, professing cracking friendship. The Urartean king, however, did non alter his plans; he continued his preparations, in addition to increased his pressure level upon Assyria inwards the Eastern Tigris basin. Sargon's son, Sennacherib, so a provincial governor, urged his manful somebody nurture to mail to a greater extent than troops to that area, informing him of Argistis's social club to his prefects to "seize the governors of the Assyrian manful somebody monarch inwards Kumai in addition to drag them before me."
Sennacherib was assassinated inwards 681 — past times 2 of his sons, Adramelech in addition to Sharazer, according to the Bible. Professor N. Adontz ascribes this criminal offense to the instant boy only, Ardi or Arad-Ninlil, who, allied with Adramelos Nebusaresur, the governor of Maraski, fought against his ain blood brother Esarhaddon. Defeated at Carchemish, the 2 fled into Armenia.
Efforts have got been made to decipher the cuneiform inscriptions of Armenia through the present-day Armenian language. The failure of these attempts has led some to believe that the inscriptions inwards enquiry must hold upwards inwards some unknown, alien tongue, neither Indo-European nor Semitic.
Linguistic Connections
One investigator, P. Jensen, finds a for sure similarity betwixt the Urartean linguistic communication in addition to that inwards which the missive of the alphabet of King Tushratta of Mitanni (found at Tel-el‑Amarna, Egypt) was written. For example, the hollo of the god Tesub of the Mitanni closely resembles that of the god Teisbas of Urartu. Another scholar thinks that ancient Armenia or Urartu had a cultural connecter with Asia Minor in addition to Syrian Arab Republic — citing the Hurri-Mitanni or Subarean remains inwards upper Mesopotamia in addition to Syrian Arab Republic equally having points of resemblance to the characters of the Khaldian inscriptions.
There appears to have got been a pre-Indo-European substratum of spoken communication which strongly influenced the Indo-European-Armenian. Professor N. Marr, a Khaldist authority, suspects that the linguistic communication of the Vannic cuneiforms is of the type of several modern Caucasian dialects of the Japhetic class. however, the Aryo-European must have got exerted cracking influence upon the Urartean, fifty-fifty long before the times of the Vannic Empire.
On the other hand, E. Meyer cites names of majestic princes many centuries before Christ inwards the Taurus expanse in addition to Palestine, in addition to afterwards inwards Commagene; names such equally Arta-tama, Arta-skana in addition to Artamana, all to a greater extent than Iranian inwards grapheme than Indian, in addition to all bearing the Arta prefix which persists inwards Armenian names to this day. But in that place were names such equally Kundaspie in addition to Kustaspie, which were originally Indian, their forms so beingness Vindaspa in addition to Vistaspa. Other pregnant links are constitute inwards the Hatti-Mitanni treaty (1387‑1367 B.C.), which contained the names of other than gods, in addition to inwards the Sanskrit numerals, yeka (one), tria (three) in addition to panja (five), equally constitute inwards the treatise upon horse-training past times Kikkuli of Mitanni (1400 B.C.).
The Subarean (Asianic-Hurri-Japhetic) linguistic communication is the basic stratum of the diverse above-mentioned tongues; it was topped in addition to strongly affected past times the Aryan-Mitanni language, from which mixture the Urartean sprang up, it beingness related inwards plow to the one-time Hatti-Asianic, the novel Caucasian in addition to through Indo-European elements, to the Aryan languages. On this Indo-European-Armenian foundation was superimposed the Urartean speech, which was forced upon the conquered natives, from whose dialects also an additional stock of words was assimilated inwards the course of study of time. Traces of anthropological types of culture, religious belief in addition to social customs are beingness discovered from fourth dimension to fourth dimension nether the Armen stratum. The same may hold upwards said of the linguistic heritage of the past.
In his analysis of the known Iso-Urartean root-words, Professor Ghapantsian of Yerevan University identifies one-fourth equally of Hittite character. Many other root words in addition to grammatical forms of non-Indo-European types have got been found, but belonging to an Asia Minor group. All non-Indo-European elements, the Urartean in addition to others, descend from the Subarean mutual origin. The same applies to the anthropological strata of the population of Armenia, whose chronology is stated past times Professor A. Hatch equally follows:
One of the cracking chapters inwards the history of Armenia is or should hold upwards the epic of the monarchy which the Assyrians called Urartu, but which was known to the Hebrews equally Ararat. Herodotus called its people Alarodians. Urartu is regarded past times history today equally ane of the before incarnations of Armenia. In Urartu was manifest non alone the indomitable fighting spirit of the afterwards Armenians, but also the same style towards evolution of a higher culture. As a noted authority, H. A. B. Lynch, remarks, Urartu was "no obscure dynasty which slept secure behind the mountains, but a excellent monarchy which for to a greater extent than than 2 centuries rivalled the claims of Assyria to the principle of the ancient world."Its Peak Years
As a nation, it lived through many to a greater extent than centuries than that, but it was alone betwixt 860 in addition to 585 B.C. that it genuinely disputed with Assyria the correct to dominate western Asia. Its beginnings are lost inwards the mists of pre-history. Its people must have got migrated from somewhere to the westward into the Armenian plateau, so for the most business office known equally Nairi. They called themselves Khaldians or children of the god Khaldis, merely equally the hollo of the Assyrians reflects the hollo of their god Assur. The cuneiform characters of their inscriptions were for centuries Assyrian; but afterwards on the linguistic communication changed to or was absorbed inwards the local one. The Assyrian was a Semitic language, piece Urartean was neither Semitic nor Indo-European. Urartean civilization is believed to have got been similar to the Hittite in addition to Assyro-Babylonian, blended with native characteristics. The afterwards Urartean monuments still grip a mystery for us equally to their affinity with the Armenian language, witness of a glorious past. It has non yet been possible to decipher these inscriptions with whatever assistance from the Armenian language. N. Marr, Nikolsky, Lehmann-Haupt in addition to before scientists have got classified them equally inwards the Japhetic speech-group, in addition to the Armenian experts, A. Calantar in addition to G. Ghapantsian, concur inwards this finding. Professor Nikolsky has constitute hundreds of words, both nouns in addition to verbs, showing affinity betwixt the Urartean in addition to the modern Utean. As early on equally 1879 H. Hübschmann pointed out inwards the Urartean inscriptions several words in addition to suffixes — such equally ili, ini, in addition to uni — borrowed from Caucasian idioms, specially Georgian in addition to Aghouanian (Albanian).Mystery of Origin
Where did these people come upwards from? From Asia Minor, declares Lehmann-Haupt, seeking proof for his assertion inwards their metallurgy, architecture in addition to folkways. Professor Shestokov, a Caucasian author, wrote inwards 1939 that "The oldest states of the Soviet Union were founded 3,000 years agone to the S of Transcaucasia. The oldest alongside them, that inwards the Ararat area, past times the Lake of Van, was called Urartu. Its kings ruled over Georgian tribes." Here is some other theory equally to the origin of the people ane time household inwards Nairi, which comprised the entire Armenian plateau. Even when the greater business office of that tableland became Urartu, the regions on 2 flanks of it, from Amit (Diarbekr) to Anzitene (Harpout), together with Habushkia inwards Zab Valley, in addition to Paddira, S of Musasir, were still called Nairi. The hollo Nairi-Urartu reveals kinship with Hurri, Namri, Kirruri in addition to other names with the suffix ri, having no connecter with Semitic idioms.Professor Edward Schultz was ane of the firstly to obtain master copy data on Urartu, when he visited Armenia inwards 1827. He was murdered in that place past times a Kurd, but his papers, containing 42 inscriptions constitute at Van in addition to inwards its neighborhood, were saved. The afterwards discoveries of Burnouf, Lassen in addition to Rawlinson stimulated involvement inwards Oriental antiquities. Layard visited Van inwards 1850 in addition to took novel copies of the inscriptions. Of special involvement were ane tablet on the stone of Van, in addition to an inscription on a stone inwards a ruined wall. The firstly contains the hollo of Xerxes, boy of Darius, inwards the same characters equally those of Behistun in addition to Persepolis. The instant resembles Assyrian writings. All others are of a linguistic communication peculiar to Van. Another mysterious text was read past times Hincks inwards 1847, in addition to next these Professor A. H. Sayce added "a novel linguistic communication in addition to a novel people to the museum of the ancient Oriental world." Thereafter the known Vannic texts were doubled inwards extent past times the German linguistic communication archaeologists, Lehmann in addition to Belck, who, inwards the words of Lynch, called upwards "a vanished civilization from the grave." But fifty-fifty so, alas, they could evoke alone a broken in addition to fragmentary body; so much has been lost past times the ravages of state of war in addition to vandalism in addition to time.
Van-Tosp
The spot of this theocratic monarchy was Thuspa, uppercase of the territory of Biaina, corrupted into the shape Van. The Armenian national historian, Moses of Khoren (Khorenatsi), mentions Van equally "in the province of Tosp." In some of the ancient inscriptions, ane finds, "King of Biaina, inhabiting the metropolis of Thuspas." Going dorsum into history nosotros observe Tiglat-Pileser I, King of Assyria, asserting that he conquered twenty-three kings of Nairi inwards 1114 B.C. These "kingdoms" must have got been real small, indeed; in addition to when nosotros observe that this same Tiglat claimed to have got slain with his ain manus x elephants in addition to 920 lions, nosotros are inclined to have his statements with reserve. In an inscription of the Assyrian Assurbelkala (1077‑1060 B.C.), firstly appears the hollo Uruatru. Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 Shalmanaser of Assyria (1028‑1017 B.C.), claimed the conquest of "the entire province of Uruatru" inwards iii days. In inscriptions of Ashurnasirpal (885‑859 B.C.) the hollo appears equally Urardhu or Urarthu. The succeeding manful somebody monarch Shalmaneser, forthwith called past times most historians the Second (859‑825 B.C.) sent an regular army against a manful somebody monarch of Urartu named Aramé, whose uppercase was Arzasku or Arzaskun, identified with the modern Melazgerd, northward of Lake Van. Aramé, who, according to Adontz, was the firstly organizer of the Urartean Empire, was defeated in addition to his uppercase taken past times Shalmanaser inwards 857 B.C.
Arame
To say that he was the "organizer" of the Empire, agency that he combined the "Nairi countries" into a confederation nether the aegis of the god Khaldis, supplanting an before Biaina confederation. Some government believe that non Aramé but Sardur I (844‑828) was the organizer of the confederation. Sardur was the boy of Lutipris, who succeeded Aramé. He left an inscription inwards the Assyrian language, calling himself King of Sura, which, according to Professor Albrecht Goetze, is the same equally Subaru. If this is so, the Urartean kings' claim of Hurrite descent entitled them to domination inwards Subari, or Upper Mesopotamia. Sardur's other titles were "Great King," in addition to "Ruler of Four Regions," i.e., Shar-Kishatti, according to Babylonian in addition to Assyrian inscriptions.Sardur I
Sardur built a fortress of huge stones westward of the Rock of Van, in addition to Ispuinis, his boy in addition to successor, chose that stone equally his residence in addition to equally the holy spot of the god Khaldis. Ispuinis was a contemporary of Adadnirari IV of Assyria, boy of Shalmanaser in addition to hubby of Queen Shammuramat (Semiramis). Ispuinis fought in addition to defeated his powerful rival, in addition to was hence enabled to constitute a Khaldian colony at Musasir, westward of the Pass of Kelishinin, where he erected a commemorative stone with inscriptions inwards Khaldian in addition to Assyrian. Ispuinis in addition to his boy Menuas brought the empire to its peak. Under them it extended from the Zagros Mountains inwards the East to Palu inwards the North in addition to Malatia inwards the West.
During their reigns cracking works were constructed approximately Van, including the aqueduct of Shamiram‑Su, 45 miles inwards length, completed past times Menuas, which brought the pure H2O of the Khoshab River to the eastern shores of Lake Van (whose H2O is undrinkable), enabling the King to constitute in that place a "Menuas city." This canal irrigates the manifestly of Van fifty-fifty to the introduce time.
Ispuinis in addition to Menuas
Argistis I
The political ascendence of Urartu was enhanced farther past times the weakness of Assyria nether Shalmaneser III (782‑772). Under Argistis I (785‑755), boy of Menuas, the Vannic Empire was still at the zenith of its power. The hereafter metropolis of Armavir rose on the banking concern of the Arax River inwards honor of Khaldis. The whole Armenian tableland was dependent area to Urartu, in addition to its inscriptions recording conquests are constitute from Lake Urmiah to the Euphrates River at Malatia. Thus having travel an unrivalled mightiness inwards Hither Asia, it imposed its suzerainty inwards 775 B.C. upon the kingdoms of Kummuch (Diarbekir), Tabal (west of Malatia) in addition to several other kingdoms in addition to principalities. Later on, inwards 758, after crushing the revolt of the Hatti manful somebody monarch of Milidu (Malatia), Sardur III, successor of Argistis I, moved southward, pose the Great King of Carchemish (Jarablus) nether tribute, in addition to captured the whole territory equally far equally Halpa (Aleppo). The empire of Assyria was so encircled, says the Turkish scholar, Professor Shemseddin, equally if "in an atomic bring out 26 hoop."
Sardur III
This vivid era of Urartu did non terminal long. Sardur III's Assyrian contemporaries, Assurnirari (755‑745) in addition to Tiglat-Pileser III (745‑727), waged state of war upon him, in addition to the latter dealt him a telling blow, routing him, together with his allies, the kings of New Hatti (in Malatia), of Gurgum (Marash) in addition to a score of others. The Menuas-city was destroyed inwards 735 in addition to the conqueror claimed to have got taken 73,000 prisoners. Hatti princes thereupon recognized the manful somebody monarch of Assyria equally their suzerain lord, instead of the Urartean potentate. Sardur fled deep into his mountains with a broken spirit in addition to health, in addition to sank into a physical decline, of which he died inwards 734 B.C.
Rusas I
Rusas I (733‑714 B.C.), a vigorous in addition to sagacious prince, reorganized the army, suppressed domestic turbulences in addition to revived the morale of the people. From Thuspa he transferred his spot to a colina afterwards known past times the Turkish hollo Toprak-kaleh (the earthen fort). This Rusas-city was supplied with H2O from an artificial lake inwards the side of the Varag Mountain. All this he recorded on a stele which inwards 1898‑9 was taken to the Museum of Berlin.
However, he was given picayune chance to rebuild Urartu's one-time eminence. Sargon II (722‑705), the most terrifying figure alongside the occupants of the Assyrian throne, darkened the political horizon of all the Near-Eastern lands. Tusas organized a coalition of the states of Southwest Asia in addition to strengthened the spot of Urzana, King of Musasir, his vassal in addition to ally. But inwards a sanguinary battle described inwards an inscription constitute nigh the shore of Lake Sevan, the Khaldian army, though resisting stubbornly, was defeated past times Sargon, who also overwhelmed Musasir in addition to plundered its temple. In the vast quantity of spoil carried to Nineveh were many idols belonging to the Urartean kings.
Even after this terrible loss of men in addition to material, Rusas did non yield to despair. Whilst neighboring nations were trembling with fright of the Assyrian scourge, Rusas replenished the reservoirs of his strength in addition to for the fourth dimension being, saved his kingdom from destruction. But some other dark chapter was inwards the making for him. Cimmerian hordes from the North, sweeping through the mount defiles, downward into the regions of the Urmiah in addition to Vannic lakes, surprised Urartu in addition to wrought cracking destruction. According to ane version of the outcome, the regular army of Rusas, unable to offering adequate resistance, melted away, in addition to Rusas committed suicide inwards 714. But T. A. Olmstead, inwards his History of Assyria, questioning the reliability of the Assyrian majestic scribes regards this equally a mere spectacular raid, without enduring results. One inscription, speaking of the fate of Rusas, says "With his ain atomic bring out 26 dagger, he pierced his pump equally he would to a Sus scrofa in addition to ended his life." Olmstead compares this with a slightly afterwards Assyrian inscription inwards which the defeated manful somebody monarch is pictured equally beingness ill, though in that place is non a discussion most suicide. It may good hold upwards that this malady caused his death.
Argistis II
Sargon, ane time so boastful of his devastation inwards Urartu, forthwith sent envoys to Argistis, professing cracking friendship. The Urartean king, however, did non alter his plans; he continued his preparations, in addition to increased his pressure level upon Assyria inwards the Eastern Tigris basin. Sargon's son, Sennacherib, so a provincial governor, urged his manful somebody nurture to mail to a greater extent than troops to that area, informing him of Argistis's social club to his prefects to "seize the governors of the Assyrian manful somebody monarch inwards Kumai in addition to drag them before me."
Sennacherib was assassinated inwards 681 — past times 2 of his sons, Adramelech in addition to Sharazer, according to the Bible. Professor N. Adontz ascribes this criminal offense to the instant boy only, Ardi or Arad-Ninlil, who, allied with Adramelos Nebusaresur, the governor of Maraski, fought against his ain blood brother Esarhaddon. Defeated at Carchemish, the 2 fled into Armenia.
Efforts have got been made to decipher the cuneiform inscriptions of Armenia through the present-day Armenian language. The failure of these attempts has led some to believe that the inscriptions inwards enquiry must hold upwards inwards some unknown, alien tongue, neither Indo-European nor Semitic.
Linguistic Connections
There appears to have got been a pre-Indo-European substratum of spoken communication which strongly influenced the Indo-European-Armenian. Professor N. Marr, a Khaldist authority, suspects that the linguistic communication of the Vannic cuneiforms is of the type of several modern Caucasian dialects of the Japhetic class. however, the Aryo-European must have got exerted cracking influence upon the Urartean, fifty-fifty long before the times of the Vannic Empire.
On the other hand, E. Meyer cites names of majestic princes many centuries before Christ inwards the Taurus expanse in addition to Palestine, in addition to afterwards inwards Commagene; names such equally Arta-tama, Arta-skana in addition to Artamana, all to a greater extent than Iranian inwards grapheme than Indian, in addition to all bearing the Arta prefix which persists inwards Armenian names to this day. But in that place were names such equally Kundaspie in addition to Kustaspie, which were originally Indian, their forms so beingness Vindaspa in addition to Vistaspa. Other pregnant links are constitute inwards the Hatti-Mitanni treaty (1387‑1367 B.C.), which contained the names of other than gods, in addition to inwards the Sanskrit numerals, yeka (one), tria (three) in addition to panja (five), equally constitute inwards the treatise upon horse-training past times Kikkuli of Mitanni (1400 B.C.).
The Subarean (Asianic-Hurri-Japhetic) linguistic communication is the basic stratum of the diverse above-mentioned tongues; it was topped in addition to strongly affected past times the Aryan-Mitanni language, from which mixture the Urartean sprang up, it beingness related inwards plow to the one-time Hatti-Asianic, the novel Caucasian in addition to through Indo-European elements, to the Aryan languages. On this Indo-European-Armenian foundation was superimposed the Urartean speech, which was forced upon the conquered natives, from whose dialects also an additional stock of words was assimilated inwards the course of study of time. Traces of anthropological types of culture, religious belief in addition to social customs are beingness discovered from fourth dimension to fourth dimension nether the Armen stratum. The same may hold upwards said of the linguistic heritage of the past.
In his analysis of the known Iso-Urartean root-words, Professor Ghapantsian of Yerevan University identifies one-fourth equally of Hittite character. Many other root words in addition to grammatical forms of non-Indo-European types have got been found, but belonging to an Asia Minor group. All non-Indo-European elements, the Urartean in addition to others, descend from the Subarean mutual origin. The same applies to the anthropological strata of the population of Armenia, whose chronology is stated past times Professor A. Hatch equally follows:
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