history of computer
1947
Eckert together with Mauchly amongst the ENIAC
Computer pioneers Presper Eckert together with John Mauchly founded the Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corp. to build machines based on their sense amongst ENIAC together with EDVAC. The only machine the companionship built was BINAC. Before completing the UNIVAC, the companionship became a segmentation of Remington Rand.
1952
Heinz Nixdorf founded Nixdorf Computer Corp. inwards Germany. It remained an independent corporation until merging amongst Siemens inwards 1990.
1956
ElectroData computing machine inwards use, 1955
Burroughs buys Electrodata. Calculator manufacturer Burroughs gained entry to the computing machine manufacture past times purchasing the southern California companionship Electrodata Corporation. The combined job solid became a giant inwards the calculating machine job organisation together with expanded into electronics together with digital computers when these technologies developed. Burroughs created many computing machine systems inwards the 1960s together with 1970s together with eventually merged amongst the makers of the Sperry Rand (maker of Univac computers) to shape Unisys.
1957
Digital Equipment Corp.
A grouping of engineers led past times Ken Olsen left MIT´s Lincoln Laboratory founded a companionship based on the novel transistor technology. In August, they formally created Digital Equipment Corp. It initially laid upwards store inwards a largely vacant woolen manufacturing works life inwards Maynard, Mass., where all aspects of production evolution — from administration to manufacturing — took place.
CDC 1604
In Minneapolis, the master Engineering Research Associates grouping led past times Bill Norris left Sperry Rand to shape a novel company, Control Data Corp., which shortly released its model 1604 computer.
1963
Tandy Radio Shack is founded. Tandy Radio Shack (TRS) was formed past times the 1963 merger of Tandy Leather Company together with Radio Shack. TRS began past times selling a diverseness of electronic products, mainly to hobbyists. The TRS-80 Model I computer, introduced inwards 1977, was a major mensuration inwards introducing habitation computers to the public. Like the Commodore PET together with the Apple II, which were introduced within months of the TRS-80, the computing machine came assembled together with laid upwards to run.
1965
Commodore Business Machine founder Jack Tramiel
Commodore Business Machines (CBM) is founded. Its founder Jack Tramiel emigrated to the US after WWII where he began repairing typewriters. In 1965, he moved to Toronto together with established Commodore International which also began making mechanical together with electronic calculators. In 1977, Commodore released the Commodore PET computer; inwards 1981 the VIC-20; and, inwards 1982, the Commodore 64. CBM purchased competitor Amiga Corporation inwards 1984. Despite beingness the largest unmarried supplier of computers inwards the world at i time, past times 1984 internal disputes together with marketplace position pressures led to fiscal problems. The companionship declared bankruptcy inwards 1994.
1968
Ivan Sutherland together with David Evans, 1969
Evans & Sutherland is formed. In 1968, David Evans together with Ivan Sutherland, both professors of computing machine science, founded a companionship to develop a particular graphics computing machine known every bit a frame buffer. This device was a particular high-speed retention used for capturing video. Based inwards Salt Lake City, Utah, the 2 founders trained a generation of computing machine graphics pioneers—either at E&S or at the University of Utah computing machine scientific discipline department. Sutherland left the job solid inwards 1975, together with Evans retired inwards the early on 1990s, but E & S continues today every bit a major supplier of military machine together with commercial graphics systems.
1969
Xerox
Xerox Corp. bought Scientific Data Systems for nearly $1 billion — xc times the latter´s earnings. The SDS serial of minicomputers inwards the early on 1960s logged to a greater extent than sales than did Digital Equipment Corp. Xerox changed the serial to the XDS computers but eventually unopen the segmentation together with ceased to manufacture the equipment.
1970
Engineers at PARC circa 1972
Xerox opens Palo Alto Research Center (PARC). In 1970, Xerox Corporation hired Dr. George Pake to Pb a novel inquiry centre inwards Palo Alto, California. PARC attracted some of the United States’ top computing machine scientists, together with produced many groundbreaking inventions that transformed computing—most notably the personal computing machine graphical user interface, Ethernet, the Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation printer, together with object-oriented programming. Xerox was unable to marketplace position the inventions from PARC but others did, including Steve Jobs (Apple), Bob Metcalfe (3Com), every bit good every bit Charles Geschke together with John Warnock (Adobe)
1971
RCA Spectra seventy advertisment
RCA sells its computing machine division. RCA was founded inwards 1919 to brand vacuum tubes for radio, together with so a novel invention. RCA began designing together with selling its ain computers inwards the early on 1950s, competing amongst IBM together with several other companies. By the 1970s, RCA, every bit good every bit other computing machine makers, were struggling to compete against IBM. RCA made their machines IBM-compatible, but ultimately fifty-fifty this strategy proved unsuccessful. RCA announced it would no longer build computers inwards 1971, selling its computing machine job organisation to Sperry-Rand.
1973
IMSAI 8080 System
IMSAI is founded. In 1973, Bill Millard left his regular task inwards administration to found the consulting job solid Information Management Services or IMS. The next year, piece he was working on a client’s project, he developed a little computing arrangement using the then-new Intel 8080 microprocessor. He realized this computing machine mightiness attract other buyers together with so placed an promotion inwards the hobbyist periodical “Popular Electronics,” offering it inwards kit form. The IMSAI 8080, every bit it was known, sold briskly together with eventually most 20,000 units were shipped. The companionship was eventually purchased past times i of its dealers together with is today a segmentation of the Fischer-Freitas Company, which even so offers reproductions of the master for sale to hobbyists.
1975
Xerox Sigma-5
Xerox closes its computing machine division. After acquiring computing machine maker Scientific Data Systems (SDS) inwards 1969, Xerox redesigned SDS’s well-known Sigma line of computers. Xerox struggled against competitors similar IBM together with inwards 1975 unopen the division. Most of the rights to the machines were sold to Honeywell.
1980
Doug together with Gary Carlston at Broderbund Headquarters
Broderbund is founded. In 1980, brothers Doug together with Gary Carlston formed a companionship to marketplace position the games Doug had created. Their outset games were Galactic Empire, Galactic Trader together with Galactic Revolution. They continued to have got success amongst pop games such every bit Myst (1993) together with Riven (1997) together with a broad arrive at of habitation products such every bit Print Shop, linguistic communication tutors, etc. In 1998, Broderbund was acquired past times The Learning Company which, a twelvemonth later, was itself acquired past times Mattel, Inc.
1983
Connection Machine 2 amongst DataVault
Thinking Machines is founded. Thinking Machines Corporation (TMC) was formed past times MIT graduate pupil Danny Hillis together with others to develop a novel type of supercomputer. Their thought was to job many private processors of moderate powerfulness rather than i extremely powerful processor. Their outset machine, called The Connection Machine (CM-1), had 64,000 microprocessors, together with began transportation inwards 1986. TMC afterwards produced several larger computers amongst to a greater extent than powerful—the CM-2 together with CM-5. Competition from to a greater extent than established supercomputer firms forced them into bankruptcy inwards 1993.
1994
Early Netscape diskette
Netscape Communications Corporation is founded. Netscape was originally founded every bit Mosaic Communications Corporation inwards Apr of 1994 past times Marc Andreessen, Jim Clark together with others. Its call was shortly changed to Netscape together with it delivered its outset browser inwards Oct of 1994. On the solar daytime of Netscape's initial populace offering inwards August of 1995, it’s portion toll went from $28 to $54 inwards the outset few minutes of trading, valuing the companionship at $2 billion. Netscape hired many of Silicon Valley’s programmers to render novel features together with products together with began the Internet nail of the 1990s.
Yahoo! founders Jerry Yang together with David Filo, 2000
Yahoo is founded. Founded past times Stanford graduate students Jerry Yang together with David Filo, Yahoo started out every bit "Jerry's Guide to the World Wide Web" before beingness renamed. Yahoo originally resided on 2 machines, Akebono together with Konishiki, both named after famous Sumo wrestlers. Yahoo would speedily expand to go i of the Internet’s most pop search engines.
Zilog Z-80
Intel together with Zilog introduced novel microprocessors. Five times faster than its predecessor, the 8008, the Intel 8080 could address 4 times every bit many bytes for a total of 64 kilobytes. The Zilog Z-80 could run whatever programme written for the 8080 together with included twice every bit many built-in machine instructions.
1979
Motorola 68000
The Motorola 68000 microprocessor exhibited a processing speed far greater than its contemporaries. This high performance processor found its house inwards powerful operate stations intended for graphics-intensive programs mutual inwards engineering.
Introduction to VLSI Systems
California Institute of Technology professor Carver Mead together with Xerox Corp. computing machine scientist Lynn Conway wrote a manual of chip design, "Introduction to VLSI Systems." Demystifying the planning of real large scale integrated (VLSI) systems, the text expanded the ranks of engineers capable of creating such chips. The authors had observed that computing machine architects seldom participated inwards the specification of the criterion integrated circuits amongst which they worked. The authors intended "Introduction to VLSI Systems" to fill upwards a gap inwards the literature together with innovate all electrical engineering scientific discipline together with computing machine scientific discipline students to integrated arrangement architecture.
1986
David Miller of AT&T Bell Labs patented the optical transistor, a element key to digital optical computing. Called Self-ElectroOptic-Effect Device, or SEED, the transistor involved a light-sensitive switch built amongst layers of gallium arsenide together with gallium aluminum arsenide. Beams of low-cal triggered electronic events that caused the low-cal either to live transmitted or absorbed, therefore turning the switch on or off.
Within a decade, inquiry on the optical transistor led to successful operate on the outset all-optical processor together with the outset general-purpose all-optical computer. Bell Labs researchers outset demonstrated the processor at that spot inwards 1990. H5N1 computing machine using the SEED also contained lasers, lenses, together with fast low-cal switches, but it even so required programming past times a separate, non-optical computer. In 1993, researchers at the University of Colorado unveiled the outset all-optical computing machine capable of beingness programmed together with of manipulating instructions internally.
Compaq
Compaq crunch IBM to the marketplace position when it announced the Deskpro 386, the outset computing machine on the marketplace position to job Intel´s novel 80386 chip, a 32-bit microprocessor amongst 275,000 transistors on each chip. At 4 1000000 operations per 2nd together with 4 kilobytes of memory, the 80386 gave PCs every bit much speed together with powerfulness every bit older mainframes together with minicomputers.
The 386 chip brought amongst it the introduction of a 32-bit architecture, a meaning improvement over the 16-bit architecture of previous microprocessors. It had 2 operating modes, i that mirrored the segmented retention of older x86 chips, allowing total backward compatibility, together with i that took total wages of its to a greater extent than advanced technology. The novel chip made graphical operating environments for IBM PC together with PC-compatible computers practical. The architecture that allowed Windows together with IBM OS/2 has remained inwards subsequent chips.
1987
Motorola 68030
Motorola unveiled the 68030 microprocessor. H5N1 mensuration upwards from the 68020, it built on a 32-bit enhanced microprocessor amongst a key processing unit of measurement core, a information cache, an instruction cache, an enhanced motorcoach controller, together with a retention administration unit of measurement inwards a unmarried VLSI device — all operating at speeds of at to the lowest degree 20 MHz.
1988
Compaq together with other PC-clone makers developed enhanced manufacture criterion architecture — ameliorate than microchannel together with retained compatibility amongst existing machines. EISA used a 32-bit bus, or a agency past times which 2 devices tin communicate. The advanced data-handling features of the EISA made it an improvement over the 16-bit motorcoach of manufacture criterion architecture. IBM´s competitors developed the EISA every bit a way to avoid paying a fee to IBM for its MCA bus.
1989
Intel 80486
Intel released the 80486 microprocessor together with the i860 RISC/coprocessor chip, each of which contained to a greater extent than than 1 1000000 transistors. The RISC microprocessor had a 32-bit integer arithmetics together with logic unit of measurement (the business office of the CPU that performs operations such every bit improver together with subtraction), a 64-bit floating-point unit, together with a clock charge per unit of measurement of 33 MHz.
The 486 chips remained similar inwards construction to their predecessors, the 386 chips. What laid the 486 apart was its optimized instruction set, amongst an on-chip unified instruction together with information cache together with an optional on-chip floating-point unit. Combined amongst an enhanced motorcoach interface unit, the microprocessor doubled the performance of the 386 without increasing the clock rate.
Motorola 68040
Motorola announced the 68040 microprocessor, amongst most 1.2 1000000 transistors. Due to technical difficulties, it didn´t ship until 1991, although promised inwards Jan 1990. H5N1 32-bit, 25-MHz microprocessor, the 68040 integrated a floating-point unit of measurement together with included instruction together with information caches. Apple used the tertiary generation of 68000 chips inwards Macintosh Quadra computers.
1993
Intel Pentium Processor diagram
The Pentium microprocessor is released. The Pentium was the 5th generation of the ‘x86’ line of microprocessors from Intel, the footing for the IBM PC together with its clones. The Pentium introduced several advances that made programs run faster such every bit the powerfulness to execute several instructions at the same fourth dimension together with back upwards for graphics together with music.
graphics & games
1963
The DAC-1 System at GM Research Labs, 1965
DAC-1 computing machine aided blueprint programme is released. In 1959, the General Motors Research Laboratories appointed a particular inquiry squad to investigate the job of computers inwards designing automobiles. In 1960, IBM joined the project, producing the outset commercially-available Computer Aided Design program, known every bit DAC-1. Out of that projection came the IBM 2250 display terminal every bit good every bit many advances inwards computing machine timesharing together with the job of a unmarried processor past times 2 or to a greater extent than terminals.
1972
Original Atari Pong Gme Screenshot
Pong is released. In 1966, Ralph Baer designed a ping-pong game for his Odyssey gaming console. Nolan Bushnell played this game at a Magnavox production demo inwards Burlingame, California. Bushnell hired immature engineer Al Alcorn to blueprint a machine driving game, but when it became apparent that this was likewise ambitious for the time, he had Alcorn to blueprint a version of ping-pong instead. The game was tested inwards bars inwards Grass Valley together with Sunnyvale, California where it proved real popular. Pong would revolutionize the arcade manufacture together with launch the modern video game era.
SuperPaint arrangement inwards 1973
SuperPaint is completed. SuperPaint was the outset digital computing machine drawing arrangement to job a frame buffer—a particular high-speed memory—and the ancestor of all modern pigment programs. It could create sophisticated animations, inwards upwards to 16.7 1000000 colors, had adjustable paintbrushes, video magnification, together with used a graphics tablet for drawing. It was designed past times Richard Shoup together with others at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC). Its designers won a technical Academy Award inwards 1998 for their invention.
1977
Atari VCS Prototype
Atari launches the Video Computer System game console. Atari released the Atari Video Computer System (VCS) afterwards renamed the Atari 2600. The VCS was the outset widely successful video game system, selling to a greater extent than than 20 1000000 units throughout the 1980s. The VCS used the 8-bit MOS 6507 microprocessor together with was designed to live connected to a habitation idiot box set. When the finally of Atari’s 8-bit game consoles were made inwards 1990, to a greater extent than than 900 video game titles had been released.
1986
Pixar Headquarters
Pixar is founded. Pixar was originally called the Special Effects Computer Group at Lucasfilm (launched inwards 1979). The grouping created the computing machine animated segments of films such every bit “Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan” together with “Young Sherlock Holmes.” In 1986, Apple Computer co-founder Steve Jobs paid 10 1000000 dollars to Lucasfilm to purchase the Group together with renamed it Pixar. Over the side past times side decade, Pixar made highly-successful (and Oscar-winning) animated films. It was bought past times Disney inwards 2006.
1989
The concept of virtual reality made a tilt every bit the hot topic at Siggraph´s 1989 convention inwards Boston. The Silicon Graphics booth featured the novel technology, designed past times the computer-aided blueprint software companionship Autodesk together with the computing machine companionship VPL. The term describes a computer-generated 3-D surround that allows a user to interact amongst the realities created there. The computing machine must calculate together with display sensory information speedily plenty to fool the senses.
Howard Rheingold described, "shared together with objectively nowadays similar the physical world, composable similar a operate of art, together with every bit unlimited together with harmless every bit a dream." First practical for accomplishing such tasks every bit flying simulation, virtual reality shortly spread much further, promising novel reason inwards video games, education, together with travel. Computer users are placed into the virtual surround inwards a diverseness of ways, from a large monitor to a head-mounted display or a glove.
1990
VideoToaster Installed at Local Television Station
Video Toaster is introduced past times NewTek. The Video Toaster was a video editing together with production arrangement for the Amiga line of computers together with included custom hardware together with particular software. Much to a greater extent than affordable than whatever other computer-based video editing system, the Video Toaster was non only for habitation use. It was pop amongst populace access stations together with was fifty-fifty goodness plenty to live used for broadcast idiot box shows similar Home Improvement.
1992
Original Movie Poster for Terminator 2: Judgment Day
“Terminator 2: Judgment Day” opens. Director James Cameron’s sequel to his 1984 striking “The Terminator,” featured ground-breaking particular effects done past times Industrial Light & Magic. Made for a tape $100 million, it was the most expensive pic always made at the time. Most of this cost was due to the expense of computer-generated particular effects (such every bit epitome morphing) throughout the film. Terminator 2 is i of many films that critique civilization’s frequent blind trust inwards technology.
1993
Box Art for Doom
“Doom” is released. id Software released Doom inwards belatedly 1993. An immersive first-person shooter-style game, Doom became pop on many dissimilar platforms before losing popularity to games similar Halo together with Counter-Strike. Doom players were also amid the outset to customize the game’s levels together with appearance. Doom would spawn several sequels together with a 2005 film.
networking
1960
AT&T Dataphone
AT&T designed its Dataphone, the outset commercial modem, specifically for converting digital computing machine information to analog signals for transmission across its long distance network. Outside manufacturers incorporated Bell Laboratories´ digital information sets into commercial products. The evolution of equalization techniques together with bandwidth-conserving modulation systems improved transmission efficiency inwards national together with global systems.
1964
Online transaction processing made its debut inwards IBM´s SABRE reservation system, laid upwards for American Airlines. Using telephone lines, SABRE linked 2,000 terminals inwards 65 cities to a pair of IBM 7090 computers, delivering information on whatever flying inwards less than iii seconds.
JOSS configuration
JOSS (Johnniac Open Shop System) conversational time-sharing service began on Rand´s Johnniac. Time-sharing arose, inwards part, because the length of batch turn-around times impeded the solution of problems. Time sharing aimed to convey the user dorsum into "contact" amongst the machine for online debugging together with programme development.
1966
Acoustically coupled modem
John van Geen of the Stanford Research Institute vastly improved the acoustically coupled modem. His receiver reliably detected bits of information despite background dissonance heard over long-distance telephone lines. Inventors developed the acoustically coupled modem to connect computers to the telephone network past times agency of the criterion telephone handset of the day.
1970
Citizens together with Southern National Bank inwards Valdosta, Ga., installed the country´s outset automatic teller machine.
ARPANET topology
Computer-to-computer communication expanded when the Department of Defense established 4 nodes on the ARPANET: the University of California Santa Barbara together with UCLA, SRI International, together with the University of Utah. Viewed every bit a comprehensive resource-sharing network, ARPANET´s designers laid out amongst several goals: direct job of distributed hardware services; direct retrieval from remote, one-of-a-kind databases; together with the sharing of software subroutines together with packages non available on the users´ primary computing machine due to incompatibility of hardware or languages.
1971
Ray Tomlinson inwards 2001
The outset e-mail is sent. Ray Tomlinson of the inquiry job solid Bolt, Beranek together with Newman sent the outset e-mail when he was supposed to live working on a dissimilar project. Tomlinson, who is credited amongst beingness the i to create upwards one's hear on the "@" sign for job inwards e-mail, sent his message over a military machine network called ARPANET. When asked to depict the contents of the outset email, Tomlinson said it was “something similar "QWERTYUIOP"”
1972
Wozniak´s "blue box"
Wozniak´s "blue box", Steve Wozniak built his "blue box" a tone generator to brand gratis telephone calls. Wozniak sold the boxes inwards dormitories at the University of California Berkeley where he studied every bit an undergraduate. "The early on boxes had a security characteristic — a reed switch within the housing operated past times a magnet taped onto the exterior of the box," Wozniak remembered. "If apprehended, you lot removed the magnet, whereupon it would generate off-frequency tones together with live inoperable ... together with you lot tell the police: It´s only a music box."
1973
Ethernet
Robert Metcalfe devised the Ethernet method of network connecter at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center. He wrote: "On May 22, 1973, using my Selectric typewriter ... I wrote ... "Ether Acquisition" ... heavy amongst handwritten annotations — i of which was "ETHER!" — together with amongst hand-drawn diagrams — i of which showed `boosters´ interconnecting branched cable, telephone, together with ratio ethers inwards what nosotros at nowadays telephone call upwards an internet.... If Ethernet was invented inwards whatever i memo, past times whatever i person, or on whatever i day, this was it."
Robert M. Metcalfe, "How Ethernet Was Invented", IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, Volume 16, No. 4, Winter 1994, p. 84.
1975
Telenet, the outset commercial packet-switching network together with civilian equivalent of ARPANET, was born. The brainchild of Larry Roberts, Telenet linked customers inwards vii cities. Telenet represented the outset value-added network, or VAN — so named because of the extras it offered beyond the basic service of linking computers.
1976
The Queen of England sends outset her e-mail. Elizabeth II, Queen of the United Kingdom, sends out an e-mail on March 26 from the Royal Signals together with Radar Establishment (RSRE) inwards Malvern every bit a business office of a demonstration of networking technology.
1979
The Shockwave Rider
John Shoch together with Jon Hupp at the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center uncovering the computing machine "worm," a brusk programme that searches a network for idle processors. Initially designed to render to a greater extent than efficient job of computers together with for testing, the worm had the unintended lawsuit of invading networked computers, creating a security threat.
Shoch took the term "worm" from the volume "The Shockwave Rider," past times John Brunner, inwards which an omnipotent "tapeworm" programme runs loose through a network of computers. Brunner wrote: "No, Mr. Sullivan, nosotros can´t halt it! There´s never been a worm amongst that tough a caput or that long a tail! It´s edifice itself, don´t you lot understand? Already it´s passed a billion bits together with it´s even so growing. It´s the exact inverse of a phage — whatever it takes in, it adds to itself instead of wiping... Yes, sir! I´m quite aware that a worm of that type is theoretically impossible! But the fact stands, he´s done it, together with at nowadays it´s so goddamn comprehensive that it can´t live killed. Not brusk of demolishing the net!" (247, Ballantine Books, 1975).
USENET established. USENET was invented every bit a agency for providing post together with file transfers using a communications criterion known every bit UUCP. It was developed every bit a articulation projection past times Duke University together with the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill past times graduate students Tom Truscott, Jim Ellis, together with Steve Bellovin. USENET enabled its users to post messages together with files that could live accessed together with archived. It would go on to go i of the chief areas for large-scale interaction for involvement groups through the 1990s.
Richard Bartle together with Roy Trubshaw circa 1999
The outset Multi-User Domain (or Dungeon), MUD1, is goes on-line. Richard Bartle together with Roy Trubshaw, 2 students at the University of Essex, write a programme that allows many people to play against each other on-line. MUDs go pop amongst college students every bit a agency of adventure gaming together with for socializing. By 1984, at that spot are to a greater extent than than 100 active MUDs together with variants only about the world.
1983
The ARPANET splits into the ARPANET together with MILNET. Due to the success of the ARPANET every bit a way for researchers inwards universities together with the military machine to collaborate, it was divide into military machine (MILNET) together with civilian (ARPANET) segments. This was made possible past times the adoption of TCP/IP, a networking standard, iii years earlier. The ARPANET was renamed the “Internet” inwards 1995.
1985
The modern Internet gained back upwards when the National Science foundation formed the NSFNET, linking 5 supercomputer centers at Princeton University, Pittsburgh, University of California at San Diego, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, together with Cornell University. Soon, several regional networks developed; eventually, the authorities reassigned pieces of the ARPANET to the NSFNET. The NSF allowed commercial job of the Internet for the outset fourth dimension inwards 1991, together with inwards 1995, it decommissioned the backbone, leaving the Internet a self-supporting industry.
The NSFNET initially transferred information at 56 kilobits per second, an improvement on the overloaded ARPANET. Traffic continued to increase, though, together with inwards 1987, ARPA awarded Merit Network Inc., IBM, together with MCI a contract to expand the Internet past times providing access points only about the reason to a network amongst a bandwidth of 1.5 megabits per second. In 1992, the network upgraded to T-3 lines, which transmit information at most 45 megabits per second.
Stewart Brand together with Larry Brilliant lecturing on the Well, 1999
The Whole world 'Lectronic Link (WELL) is founded. Stewart Brand together with Larry Brilliant started an on-line Bulletin Board System (BBS) to build a “virtual community” of computing machine users at depression cost. Journalists were given gratis memberships inwards the early on days, leading to many articles most it together with helping it grow to thousands of members only about the world.
1988
ARPANET worm
Robert Morris´ worm flooded the ARPANET. Then-23-year-old Morris, the boy of a computing machine security skillful for the National Security Agency, sent a nondestructive worm through the Internet, causing problems for most 6,000 of the 60,000 hosts linked to the network. H5N1 researcher at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory inwards California discovered the worm. "It was similar the Sorcerer´s Apprentice," Dennis Maxwell, together with so a vice president of SRI, told the Sydney (Australia) Dominicus Telegraph at the time. Morris was sentenced to iii years of probation, 400 hours of community service, together with a fine of $10,050.
Morris, who said he was motivated past times boredom, programmed the worm to reproduce itself together with computing machine files together with to filter through all the networked computers. The size of the reproduced files eventually became large plenty to fill upwards the computers´ memories, disabling them.
1990
Berners-Lee proposal
The WWW was born when Tim Berners-Lee, a researcher at CERN, the high-energy physics laboratory inwards Geneva, developed HyperText Markup Language. HTML, every bit it is unremarkably known, allowed the Internet to expand into the World Wide Web, using specifications he developed such every bit URL (Uniform Resource Locator) together with HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol). H5N1 browser, such every bit Netscape or Microsoft Internet Explorer, follows links together with sends a query to a server, allowing a user to see a site.
Berners-Lee based the WWW on Enquire, a hypertext arrangement he had developed for himself, amongst the aim of allowing people to operate together past times combining their cognition inwards a global spider web of hypertext documents. With this thought inwards mind, Berners-Lee designed the outset WWW server together with browser — available to the full general populace inwards 1991. Berners-Lee founded the W3 Consortium, which coordinates WWW development.
1993
Screen Capture from Original Mosaic Browser
The Mosaic spider web browser is released. Mosaic was the outset commercial software that allowed graphical access to content on the internet. Designed past times Eric Bina together with Marc Andreessen at the University of Illinois’s National Center for Supercomputer Applications, Mosaic was originally designed for a Unix arrangement running X-windows. By 1994, Mosaic was available for several other operating systems such every bit the Mac OS, Windows together with AmigaOS.
people & pop culture
significantly inwards his evolution of the concept of a "universal machine."
1955
First coming together of SHARE, the IBM users group, convened. User groups became a meaning educational forcefulness allowing companies to communicate innovations together with users to merchandise information.
1970
Vietnam War protesters attacked academy computing machine centers. At the University of Wisconsin, the toll was i human together with 4 machines.
1982
Time periodical altered its annual tradition of naming a "Man of the Year," choosing instead to call the computing machine its "Machine of the Year." In introducing the theme, Time publisher John A. Meyers wrote, "Several human candidates mightiness have got represented 1982, but none symbolized the past times twelvemonth to a greater extent than richly, or volition live viewed past times history every bit to a greater extent than significant, than a machine: the computer.
His magazine, he explained, has chronicled the alter inwards populace sentiment amongst regard to computers. H5N1 senior author contributed: "computers were i time regarded every bit distant, ominous abstractions, similar Big Brother. In 1982, they genuinely became personalized, brought downward to scale, so that people could hold, prod together with play amongst them." At Time, the chief author on the projection completed his operate on a typewriter, but Meyers noted that the magazine's newsroom would upgrade to give-and-take processors within a year.
The job of computer-generated graphics inwards movies took a mensuration forrad amongst Disney´s release of "Tron." One of the outset movies to job such graphics, the plot of "Tron" also featured computers - it followed the adventures of a hacker divide into molecules together with transported within a computer. Computer animation, done past times III, Abel, MAGI, together with Digital Effects, accounted for most xxx minutes of the film.
1984
Gibson´s Neuromancer
In his novel "Neuromancer," William Gibson coined the term "cyberspace." He also spawned a genre of fiction known every bit "cyberpunk" inwards his book, which described a dark, complex hereafter filled amongst intelligent machines, computing machine viruses, together with paranoia.
Gibson introduced cyberspace as: "A consensual hallucination experienced daily past times billions of legitimate operators, inwards every nation, past times children beingness taught mathematical concepts... H5N1 graphic representation of information abstracted from the banks of every computing machine inwards the human system. Unthinkable complexity. Lines of low-cal ranged inwards the nonspace of the mind, clusters together with constellations of data. Like metropolis lights, receding..." (p. 51).
1988
Still from Pixar's Tin Toy
Pixar´s "Tin Toy" became the outset computer-animated cinema to win an Academy Award, taking the Oscar for best animated brusk film. H5N1 wind-up toy outset encountering a boisterous babe narrated "Tin Toy." To illustrate the baby´s facial expressions, programmers defined to a greater extent than than forty facial muscles on the computing machine controlled past times the animator.
Founded inwards 1986, i of Pixar´s primary projects involved a renderer, called Renderman, the criterion for describing 3-D scenes. Renderman describes objects, low-cal sources, cameras, atmospheric effects, together with other information so that a scene tin live rendered on a diverseness of systems. The companionship continued on to other successes, including 1995´s "Toy Story," the outset full-length characteristic cinema created solely past times computing machine animation.
robots & artificial intelligence
1948
Norbert Wiener
Norbert Wiener published "Cybernetics," a major influence on afterwards inquiry into artificial intelligence. He drew on his World War II experiments amongst anti-aircraft systems that anticipated the course of written report of enemy planes past times interpreting radar images. Wiener coined the term "cybernetics" from the Greek give-and-take for "steersman."
In improver to "cybernetics," historians annotation Wiener for his analysis of encephalon waves together with for his exploration of the similarities betwixt the human encephalon together with the modern computing machine capable of retention association, choice, together with determination making.
1959
APT ashtray
MIT´s Servomechanisms Laboratory demonstrated computer-assisted manufacturing. The school´s Automatically Programmed Tools projection created a language, APT, used to instruct milling machine operations. At the demonstration, the machine produced an ashtray for each attendee.
1961
UNIMATE
UNIMATE, the outset industrial robot, began operate at General Motors. Obeying step-by-step commands stored on a magnetic drum, the 4,000-pound arm sequenced together with stacked hot pieces of die-cast metal.
The brainchild of Joe Engelberger together with George Devol, UNIMATE originally automated the manufacture of TV painting tubes.
1963
Rancho Arm
Researchers designed the Rancho Arm at Rancho Los Amigos Hospital inwards Downey, California every bit a tool for the handicapped. The Rancho Arm´s 6 joints gave it the flexibility of a human arm. Acquired past times Stanford University inwards 1963, it holds a house amid the outset artificial robotic arms to live controlled past times a computer.
1965
A Stanford squad led past times Ed Feigenbaum created DENDRAL, the outset skillful system, or programme designed to execute the accumulated expertise of specialists. DENDRAL applied a battery of "if-then" rules inwards chemical scientific discipline together with physics to position the molecular construction of organic compounds.
1968
Tentacle Arm
Marvin Minsky developed the Tentacle Arm, which moved similar an octopus. It had twelve joints designed to arrive at only about obstacles. H5N1 PDP-6 computing machine controlled the arm, powered past times hydraulic fluids. Mounted on a wall, it could elevator the weight of a person.
1969
Stanford Arm
Victor Scheinman´s Stanford Arm made a breakthrough every bit the outset successful electrically powered, computer-controlled robot arm. By 1974, the Stanford Arm could get together a Ford Model T H2O pump, guiding itself amongst optical together with contact sensors. The Stanford Arm led straight to commercial production. Scheinman went on to blueprint the PUMA serial of industrial robots for Unimation, robots used for automobile assembly together with other industrial tasks.
1970
SRI´s Shakey
SRI International´s Shakey became the outset mobile robot controlled past times artificial intelligence. Equipped amongst sensing devices together with driven past times a problem-solving programme called STRIPS, the robot found its way only about the halls of SRI past times applying information most its surround to a route. Shakey used a TV camera, Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation arrive at finder, together with bump sensors to collect data, which it together with so transmitted to a DEC PDP-10 together with PDP-15. The computing machine radioed dorsum commands to Shakey — who together with so moved at a speed of 2 meters per hour.
1974
Silver Arm
David Silver at MIT designed the Silver Arm, a robotic arm to exercise small-parts assembly using feedback from fragile acquit on together with pressure level sensors. The arm´s fine movements corresponded to those of human fingers.
1976
Hirose´s Soft Gripper
Shigeo Hirose´s Soft Gripper could conform to the shape of a grasped object, such every bit this vino drinking glass filled amongst flowers. The blueprint Hirose created at the Tokyo Institute of Technology grew from his studies of flexible structures inwards nature, such every bit elephant trunks together with ophidian spinal cords.
1978
Speak & Spell creators
Texas Instruments Inc. introduced Speak & Spell, a talking learning assist for ages 7 together with up. Its debut marked the outset electronic duplication of the human song tract on a unmarried chip of silicon. Speak & Spell utilized linear predictive coding to formulate a mathematical model of the human song tract together with predict a speech communication sample based on previous input. It transformed digital information processed through a filter into synthetic speech communication together with could store to a greater extent than than 100 seconds of linguistic sounds.
Shown hither are the 4 individuals who began the Speak & Spell program: From left to right, Gene Frantz, Richard Wiggins, Paul Breedlove, together with George Brantingham.
1979
Stanford Cart
In evolution since 1967, the Stanford Cart successfully crossed a chair-filled room without human intervention inwards 1979. Hans Moravec rebuilt the Stanford Cart inwards 1977, equipping it amongst stereo vision. H5N1 idiot box camera, mounted on a rails on the top of the cart, took pictures from several dissimilar angles together with relayed them to a computer. The computing machine gauged the distance betwixt the cart together with obstacles inwards its path.
1983
MIDI
The Musical Instrument Digital Interface was introduced at the outset North American Music Manufacturers demo inwards Los Angeles. MIDI is an industry-standard electronic interface that links electronic music synthesizers. The MIDI information tells a synthesizer when to start together with halt playing a specific note, what audio that annotation should have, how loud it should be, together with other information.
Raymond Kurzweil, a pioneer inwards developing the electronic keyboard, predicts MIDI together with other advances volition brand traditional musical instruments obsolete inwards the future. In the 21st century, he wrote inwards his book, "The Age of Intelligent Machines," "There volition even so live acoustic instruments around, but they volition live primarily of historical interest, much similar harpsichords are today.... While the historically desirable sounds of pianos together with violins volition go on to live used, most music volition job sounds amongst no direct acoustic counterpart.... There volition non live a abrupt segmentation betwixt the instrumentalist together with nonmusician."
software & languages
Richard Stallman, a programmer at MIT’s Artificial Intelligence Lab, experienced a meaning shift inwards attitudes during the belatedly 1970s. Whereas the MIT hacker civilization was i of sharing together with openness, the commercial software world moved towards secrecy together with access to source code became always to a greater extent than restricted.
Stallman laid out to develop a gratis alternative to the pop Unix operating system. This operating arrangement called GNU (for Gnu's Not Unix) was going to live gratis of accuse but also allow users the liberty to alter together with portion it. Stallman founded the Free Software Foundation (FSF) based on this philosophy inwards 1985.
While the GNU operate did non forthwith final result inwards a total operating system, it provided the necessary tools for creating Linux. The software developed every bit business office of the GNU projection continues to shape a large business office of Linux, which is why the FSF asks for it to live called GNU/Linux.
1985
Aldus PageMaker
Aldus announced its PageMaker programme for job on Macintosh computers, launching an involvement inwards desktop publishing. Two years later, Aldus released a version for IBMs together with IBM-compatible computers. Developed past times Paul Brainerd, who founded Aldus Corp., PageMaker allowed users to combine graphics together with text easily plenty to brand desktop publishing practical.
Chuck Geschke of Adobe Systems Inc., a companionship formed inwards 1994 past times the merger of Adobe together with Aldus, remembered: "John Sculley, a immature swain at Apple, got iii groups together — Aldus, Adobe, together with Apple — together with out of that came the concept of desktop publishing. Paul Brainerd of Aldus is likely the individual who outset uttered the phrase. All iii companies together with so took everybody who could necktie a necktie together with speak 2 sentences inwards a row together with seat them on the road, coming together amongst people inwards the printing together with publishing manufacture together with selling them on this concept. The network final result was that it turned only about non only the Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation printer but, candidly, Apple Computer. It really turned only about that whole business.
The C++ programming linguistic communication emerged every bit the dominant object-oriented linguistic communication inwards the computing machine manufacture when Bjarne Stroustrup published "The C++ Programming Language." Stroustrup, at AT&T Bell Laboratories, said his motivation stemmed from a wishing to write event-driven simulations that needed a linguistic communication faster than Simula. He developed a preprocessor that allowed Simula trend programs to live implemented efficiently inwards C.
Stroustrup wrote inwards the preface to "The C++ Programming Language": "C++ is a full general role programming linguistic communication designed to brand programming to a greater extent than enjoyable for the serious programmer. Except for small-scale details, C++ is a superset of the C programming language. In improver to the facilities provided past times C, C++ provides flexible together with efficient facilities for defining novel types.... The key concept inwards C++ is class. H5N1 grade is a user-defined type. Classes render information hiding, guaranteed initialization of data, implicit type conversion for user-defined types, dynamic typing, user-controlled retention management, together with mechanisms for overloading operators.... C++ retains C's powerfulness to bargain efficiently amongst the fundamental objects of the hardware (bits, bytes, words, addresses, etc.). This allows the user-defined types to live implemented amongst a pleasing bird of efficiency."
1987
Apple engineer William Atkinson designed HyperCard, a software tool that simplifies evolution of in-house applications. HyperCard differed from previous programs of its sort because Atkinson made it interactive rather than language-based together with geared it toward the construction of user interfaces rather than the processing of data. In HyperCard, programmers built stacks amongst the concept of hypertext links betwixt stacks of pages. Apple distributed the programme gratis amongst Macintosh computers until 1992.
Hypercard users could await through existing HyperCard stacks every bit good every bit add together to or edit the stacks. As a stack author, a programmer employed diverse tools to create his ain stacks, linked together every bit a sort of slide show. At the lowest level, the programme linked cards sequentially inwards chronological ordered, but the HyperTalk programming linguistic communication allowed to a greater extent than sophisticated links.
1989
Box Art for SimCity
Maxis released SimCity, a video game that helped launch of serial of simulators. Maxis cofounder Will Wright built on his childhood involvement inwards plastic models of ships together with airplanes, eventually starting upwards a companionship amongst Jeff Braun together with designing a computing machine programme that allowed the user to create his ain city. H5N1 issue of other Sims followed inwards the series, including SimEarth, SimAnt, together with SimLife.
In SimCity, a histrion starts amongst an untouched earth. As the mayor of a metropolis or metropolis planner, he creates a landscape together with and so constructs buildings, roads, together with waterways. As the metropolis grows, the mayor must render basic services similar wellness tending together with education, every bit good every bit making decisions most where to direct money together with how to build a revenue base. Challenges come upwards inwards the shape of natural disasters, bird crashes, together with monster attacks.
1990
Microsoft shipped Windows 3.0 on May 22. Compatible amongst DOS programs, the outset successful version of Windows finally offered goodness plenty performance to satisfy PC users. For the novel version, Microsoft revamped the interface together with created a blueprint that allowed PCs to back upwards large graphical applications for the outset time. It also allowed multiple programs to run simultaneously on its Intel 80386 microprocessor.
Microsoft released Windows amid a $10 1000000 publicity blitz. In improver to making certain consumers knew most the product, Microsoft lined upwards a issue of other applications ahead of fourth dimension that ran nether Windows 3.0, including versions of Microsoft Word together with Microsoft Excel. As a result, PCs moved toward the user-friendly concepts of the Macintosh, making IBM together with IBM-compatible computers to a greater extent than popular.
1991
Linus Torvalds, 1991
Designed past times Finnish academy pupil Linus Torvalds, Linux was released to several Usenet newsgroups on September 17th, 1991. Almost immediately, enthusiasts began developing together with improving Linux, such every bit adding back upwards for peripherals together with improving its stability. In Feb 1992, Linux became gratis software or (as its developers preferred to tell after 1998) opened upwards source. Linux typically incorporated elements of the GNU operating arrangement together with became widely used.
Pretty Good Privacy is introduced. Pretty Good Privacy, or PGP, is an e-mail encryption program. Its inventor, software engineer Phil Zimmermann, created it every bit a tool for people to protect themselves from intrusive governments only about the world. Zimmermann posted PGP on the Internet inwards 1991 where it was available every bit a gratis download. The the States government, concerned most the strength of PGP, which rivaled some of the best undercover codes inwards job at the time, prosecuted Zimmermann but dropped its investigation inwards 1996. PGP is at nowadays the most widely used encryption arrangement for e-mail inwards the world.
1952
IBM 726 Dual Tape Drives
Magnetic tape allows for cheap volume storage of information together with so is a key business office of the computing machine revolution. The IBM 726 was i of the outset practical high-speed magnetic tape systems for electronic digital computers. Announced on May 21, 1952, the arrangement used a unique ‘vacuum channel’ method of keeping a loop of tape circulating betwixt 2 points allowing the tape drive to start together with halt the tape inwards a split-second. The Model 726 was outset sold amongst IBM’s outset electronic digital computing machine the Model 701 together with could store 2 1000000 digits per tape—an enormous amount at the time. It rented for $850 a month.
1956
IBM's Rey Johnson inwards front end of RAMAC 350 Disk File
The era of magnetic disk storage dawned amongst IBM´s shipment of a 305 RAMAC to Zellerbach Paper inwards San Francisco. The IBM 350 disk file served every bit the storage element for the Random Access Method of Accounting together with Control. It consisted of 50 magnetically coated metallic element platters amongst 5 1000000 bytes of data. The platters, stacked i on top of the other, rotated amongst a mutual drive shaft.
1961
The IBM 1301 Disk Storage System
IBM 1301 Disk Storage Unit is released. The IBM 1301 Disk Drive was announced on June 2nd, 1961 for job amongst IBM’s 7000-series of mainframe computers. Maximum capacity was 28 1000000 characters together with the disks rotated at 1,800 R.P.M. The 1301 leased for $2,100 per calendar month or could live purchased for $115,500. The drive had i read/write arm for each disk every bit good every bit flying heads, both of which are even so used inwards today’s disk drives.
1962
Tom Kilburn inwards front end of Manchester Atlas console
Virtual retention emerged from a squad nether the administration of Tom Kilburn at the University of Manchester on its Atlas computing machine (1962). Virtual retention permitted a computing machine to job its storage capacity to switch rapidly amid multiple programs or users together with is a key requirement for timesharing.
Four Views of the IBM 1311 Including Removable Disk Pack
IBM 1311 Disk Storage Drive is announced. Announced on Oct 11, 1962, the IBM 1311 was the outset disk drive IBM made amongst a removable disk pack. Each pack weighed most 10 pounds, held 6 disks, together with had a capacity of 2 1000000 characters. The disks would rotate at 1,500 RPM together with were accessed past times a hydraulic actuator amongst i caput per disk. [storage] The 1311 offered some of the advantages of both tapes together with disks.
1967
The IBM Photo Digital Storage System, code-named Cypress
IBM 1360 Photo-Digital Storage System is delivered. In 1967, IBM delivered the outset of its photo-digital storage systems to Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. The arrangement could read together with write upwards to a trillion bits of information—the outset such arrangement inwards the world.. The 1360 used sparse strips of cinema which were developed amongst chip patterns via a photographic developing arrangement housed inwards the machine. The arrangement used sophisticated fault correction together with a pneumatic robot to displace the cinema strips to together with from a storage unit. Only 5 were built.
1971
IBM 23FD 8
An IBM team, originally led past times David Noble, invented the 8-inch floppy diskette. It was initially designed for job inwards loading microcode into the controller for the "Merlin" (IBM 3330) disk pack file. It speedily won widespread credence every bit a programme together with data-storage medium. Unlike hard drives, a user could easily transfer a floppy inwards its protective jacket from i drive to another.
1978
Original Shugart SA400 5 1/4
The 5 1/4" flexible disk drive together with diskette were introduced past times Shugart Associates inwards 1976. This was the final result of a asking past times Wang Laboratories to make a disk drive little plenty to job amongst a desktop computer, since 8" floppy drives were considered likewise large for that purpose. By 1978, to a greater extent than than 10 manufacturers were producing 5 1/4" floppy drives.
1980
Shugart ST506 5MB Hard Disk Drive
Seagate Technology created the outset hard disk for microcomputers, the ST506. The disk held 5 megabytes of data, 5 times every bit much every bit a criterion floppy disk, together with lucifer inwards the infinite of a floppy disk drive. The hard disk itself is a stiff metallic element platter coated on both sides amongst a sparse layer of magnetic cloth that stores digital data.
Seagate Technology grew out of a 1979 conversation betwixt Alan Shugart together with Finis Conner, who had worked together at Memorex. The 2 men decided to found the companionship after developing the thought of scaling downward a hard disk to the same size every bit the then-standard 5 1/4-inch floppies. Upon releasing its outset product, Seagate speedily drew such big-name customers every bit Apple Computer together with IBM. Within a few years, it had sold 4 1000000 units.
IBM 3380 Disk System
Hard disks are an essential business office of the computing machine revolution, allowing fast, random access to large amounts of data. IBM announced its most successful mainframe hard disk (what IBM called a “Direct Access Storage Device (DASD)” inwards June of 1980, really transportation units the next year. The 3380 came inwards 6 models initially (later growing to many more) together with toll at fourth dimension of introduction ranged from $81,000 to $142,200. The base of operations model stored 2.5 GB of data, afterwards models extended this to 20GB. IBM sold over 100,000 3380s, generating tens of billions of dollars inwards revenue making the 3380 i of IBM’s most successful products of all time.
1981
Sony 3 1/2
Sony introduced together with shipped the outset 3 1/2" floppy drives together with diskettes inwards 1981. The outset signficant companionship to adopt the 3 1/2" floppy for full general job was Hewlett-Packard inwards 1982, an lawsuit which was critical inwards establishing momentum for the format together with which helped it prevail over the other contenders for the microfloppy standard, including 3", 3 1/4", together with 3.9" formats.
1983
Able to concur 550 megabytes of prerecorded data, CD-ROMs grew out of music Compact Disks (CDs). The outset general-interest CD-ROM production released after Philips together with Sony announced the CD-ROM inwards 1984 was "Grolier´s Electronic Encyclopedia," which came out inwards 1985. The ix 1000000 words inwards the encyclopedia only took upwards 12 percentage of the available space. The same year, computing machine together with electronics companies worked together to laid a criterion for the disks so whatever computing machine would live able to access the information.
Original Bernoulli Box
The Bernoulli Box is released. Using a particular cartridge-based arrangement that used hard disk technology, the Bernoulli Box was a type of removable storage that allowed people to displace large files betwixt computers when few alternatives (such every bit a network) existed. Allowing for many times the amount of storage afforded past times a regular floppy disk, the cartridges came inwards capacities ranging from 5MB to 230MB.
1984
IBM 3480 Cartridge Tape System
Magnetic tape allows for cheap volume storage of information together with so is a key business office of the computing machine revolution. Announced inwards March 1984, IBM’s novel 3480 cartridge tape arrangement sought to supervene upon the traditional reels of magnetic tape inwards the computing machine centre amongst a 4” x 5” cartridge that held to a greater extent than information (200MB) together with offered faster access to it. IBM withdrew the arrangement inwards 1989 but the novel format caught on amongst other computing machine makers who began making 3480-compatible storage systems for several years after that, offering increased storage capacity inwards the same physical format.
1994
Early Zip Drive amongst Disks
The Iomega Zip Disk is released. The initial Zip arrangement allowed 100MB to live stored on a cartridge roughly the size of a 3 ½ inch floppy disk. Later versions increased the capacity of a unmarried disk from 100Mbytes to 2GB.
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